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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS  LIBRARY  AT  URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 


DEC  6 1971 


L161— 0-1096 


The  following  slips  have  been  prepared  for  insertion  in  card  catalogs 


Nebraska-Geological  Survey. 

The  Sand  and  Gravel  Resources  and  Industries  of  Nebraska, 
by  George  Evert  Gondra.  P.  0.  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  1908, 
(Publications  of  the  survey,  v.  3.  part  1.) 


Nebraska-Geological  Survey. 

The  Sand  and  Gravel  Resources  and  Industries  of  Nebraska, 
by  George  Evert  Gondra.  P.  0.  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  1908. 
(Publications  of  the  survey,  v.  3,  part  1.) 


Condra,  George  Evert 

The  Sand  and  Gravel  Resources  and  Industries  of  Nebraska. 
P.  0.  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  1908.  (Nebraska  - Geological 
Survey,  v.  3,  part  1.) 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


To  His  Excellency  GEORGE  LAWSON  SHELDON, 

Governor  of  the  State  of  Nebraska: 

Sir:— I have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a report  en- 
titled Tlie  Sand  and  Gravel  Resources  and  Industries  of  Ne- 
braska, prepared  by  George  Evert  Condra,  Professor  of  Geog- 
raphy and  Economic  Geology  in  the  University  of  Nebraska. 

. Very  respectfully, 

Erwin  Hinckley  Barbour, 
State  Geologist. 


The  University  of  Nebraska, 
Department  of  Geology, 
Lincoln,  February  1908. 


Of  ilK 

jjwvfhsity  of  nuNOis 
19 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


ERWIN  H.  BARBOUR,  STATE  GEOLOGIST 
VOLUME  3, 

PART  1 . 


The  Sand  and  Gravel  Resources  and 
Indu^ries  of  Nebraska. 


BY 

GEORGE  EVERT  CONDRA 


SCIEMTIFIC  STAFF 


55 ' I 

H 

\\5 


ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  State  Geologist,  Director 
GEORGE  EVERT  CONDRA,  Geography  and  Economic  Geology 
CARRIE  ADELINE  BARBOUR,  Assistant  Geologist,  Invertebrate  Pale- 
ontology 

EDITH  LEONORE  WEBSTER,  Assistant  Gurator  State  Museum 
E.  FRANK  SHRAMM  . Assistant 
ROY  V.  PEPPERBERG,  Assistant 
^ BERTHA  L.  MELICK,  Recorder 
. U.  G.  CORNELL,  Scientific  Photographer  and  Engraver 


) 


^ COUMTY  GEOLOGISTS  AND  HYDROGRAPHERS 

" H B.  DUNC ANSON,  Nemaha  County 
PERCY  PURVIANCE,  Fillmore  County 
E.  P.  WILSON,  Dixon  County 
HAROLD  J.  COOK,  Sioux  County 


ASSOCIATES  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  NEBRASKA 

SAMUEL  AVERT.  Agricultural  Chemistry,  Soils 

CHARLES  E.  BESSEY,  Botany 

LAWRENCE  BRUNER,  Entomology 

GEORGE  R.  CHAT  BURN.  Strength  of  Materials 

GEORGE  A,  LOVELAND,  Meteorology 

C.  R.  RICHARDS,  Fuel  Value  of  Materials 

O.  V.  P.  TOUT,  Civil  Engineering 

HEN'RY  B.  WARD,  Zoology 

ROBERT  H.  WOLCOTT,  Zoology,  Ornitl.ology 


WITH  THE  ASSISTANCE  AND  CO-OPERATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

GEORGE  OTIS  SMITH,  Director 


296927 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/secondfinancials3190barb 


CONTEMTS 


Card  Catalog’ 

Title  Page 

Scientific  Staff 

Letter  of  Transmittal 

Contents 

Illustrations 

Introductory  

Field  Studies  

Samples 

Acknowledgement 

Nature,  Origin  and  Properties  of  Sand 

Origin  

Classification. 

Quick  Sand 

Black  Sand 

Volcanic  Ash 

Coral  Sand 

Auriferous  Sand 

Mineral  and  Rock  Composition  . . . 

Quartz 

Feldspar 

Mica 

Harnblende 

Calcite ' : . 

Iron  Oxides 

Manganese  Oxide 

Clay 

Sand-forming  Rocks .■ 

Granite 

Syenite 

liasalt 

Rhyolite 

Andesite ■ 

Gneiss 

Schists 

Sandstone,  Limestone,  etc 

I’hysical  and  Chemical  I’roperties. . 

Color 

Cleannes'; 

Fineness  or  Size  of  Grain 

Sharpness  and  Form  of  Grain. . 

Specific  Gravity 

Weight 

Voids 

Refractoriness 

Chemical  Composition 


8 


Contents 


The  Sand-bearing  Formations 38 

General  Structure 38 

Carboniferous  Rocks 40 

Pennsylvanian  Sand • 40 

Triassic  and  Jurassic  Rocks 41 

Morrison  Formation 41 

Dakota  Formation 41 

Sand  in  the  Dakota  Formation 42 

Gravel  and  Pebble  Rock 44 

Benton  Formations 46 

Niobrara  Formation 46 

Pierre  Shale 46 

Laramie  Formation 46 

Tertiary  Formations 46 

The  Chadron  48 

The  Brule 48 

The  Gering 49 

The  Arikaree 49 

Pliocene  Sand  and  Gravel  Plain 51 

Tertiary  Sands  and  Gravels 51 

Glacial  Deposits 52 

Till  Plain  Sands 52 

Glacio-fluvial  Sand  Plain 54 

Glacio-fluvial  Sands 56 

Cobbles  and  Bowlders 56 

Comparison  of  Tertiary  and  Glacio-fluvial  Sands 58 

The  Loess 58 

Alluvium 58 

Dune  Sand 59 

Methods  of  Production  and  Extent  of  Trade 60 

Sources  of  Sand -60 

Methods  of  Mining 60 

Simple  Loading  and  Hauling 61 

Loading  at  Local  Use  Pits 61 

Tunneling 62 

Shoveling  onto  Cars 63 

Loading  with  Team  and  Scraper 63 

Bucket  Elevators 64 

Sand  Pumping 64 

Boat  Dredging 64 

The  Steam  Shovel 65 

The  Clam  Dredge 65 

Production  and  Trade 69 

* Production  for  Local  Use '12 

Production  for  Shipment 72 

Total  Production  and  its  Value 72 

Supply  and  Demand 72 

Washing  and  Screening 74 


Contents 


9 


Shipment 74 

Sand  Storage 74 

Delivery 75 

Production  by  Districts 75 

Missouri  River  District 7(5 

Quality  of  Missouri  River  Sand 80 

Niobrara  District 8'i 

Elkhorn  District..' 83 

Loup  District 85 

Platte  District . . •. 86 

The  North  Platte 86 

Sidney  and  Chappell 88 

In  the  Vicinity  of  Kearney ; . . 89 

Grand  Island 91 

Central  C’ity 91 

Columbus '. 91 

Schuyler 91 

Fremont 91 

Fremont  Ice  Company  Dredge 94 

Lyman  Dredge 94 

Dredging  at  Valley ’. 97 

Lyman  Dredge 97 

Woodworth  Dredges 97 

Ashland  Dredge 99 

Meadow  Dredges ; 99 

Louisville  Dredges 105 

Cedar  Creek  Production 108 

Orea])olis  Production... 109 

Source  of  Platte  Sand  in  General Ill 

Quality  of  Platte  Sand Ill 

Amount  of  Platte  Sand 112 

Area  of  Platte  Sand  Subject  to  Development 112 

Commercial  Movements  of  Platte  Sand 113 

Rank  Sand  along  the  Lower  Platte 114 

Production  in  the  Wahoo  Valley 114 

Production  in  the  vSalt  Creek  Valley 117 

Gravel  in  the  Dakota  Formation 117 

Production  South  of  Richfield 119 

Cedar  Creek  Pits 123 

Cullom  Gravel  Pit 127 

Nemaha  District 129 

Rig  Rlue  District 131 

Little  Rlue  District 133 

Republican  District 138 

White  River  District 141 

Mechanical  Analyses 142 

ses  of  Sand  and  Gravel  147 

Table  Showing  Fses 147 


Contents 


Mortar  and  Concrete 148 

Historical 148 

Mortar  Sands 149 

Mixtures  and  Proportions . 151 

Plaster • 152 

Masonry  Mortar 153 

Mixing^  Concrete 153 

C’ul verts  and  Abutments 155 

Concrete  Piers 157 

C’oncrete  Dams 157 

Irrigation  Ditches 158 

• Water  Pipes 158 

Tanks  and  Reservoirs 158 

Sewers * 160 

Subways  and  Tunnels 160 

Monolithic  Foundations  and  Walls 160 

Monolithic  Houses 160 

Artificial  Stone 161 

Table  Showing  Distribution  of  Plants 164 

Block  Machines -.  164 

Curing 165 

Facing 165 

Sand-Cement  Brick 167 

Fence  Posts 167 

Other  Uses  of  Concrete 167 

Sidewalks 168 

Sand  as  a Moisture  Pad .168 

Pavements  169 

Roofing  Gravel 172 

Street  and  Road  Making 173 

Railroad  Ballast _ 175 

Sand-Lime  Brick 178 

Production  in  the  United  States 178 

Systems  of  Patents 178 

Raw  Materials 179 

Processes  in  the  Manufacture  of  Brick 180 

Nature  of  the  Bricks 182 

Constitution  of  Sand-Lime  Bricks 182 

Plants  in  Neighboring  States 184 

The  Plant  at  Hastings 186 

Engine  Sand 1^6 

Bedding  Sand  190 

Moulding  Sand 190 

Properties  of  Sand 190 

Glass  Sand  and  the  Glass  Industry 192 

Nature  of  Glass 192 

Quality  of  Sand  Required . 193 

Analyses  of  Glass  Sand 194 

Preparation  of  Glass  Sand 196 

Southeastern  Kansas  District 196 

Economic  Aspects 198 

Minor  Uses  of  Sand  and  Gravel 200 

Poultry  Yard 200 

Sanding  Wood 201 

Sanding  Walks 201 


ILLtSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Fig.  1.  View  in  the  Sand  Laboratory,  University  of  Nebraska 14 

“ 2.  A sand  draw  between  Fndicott  and  Steele,  Jefferson  Co..  ...  18 

3.  Sieves 27 

‘‘  4.  Diagram  to  show  uniformity  coefficient 30 

“ 5.  Sharp,  angular  and  round  quartz  and  feldspar  grains 31 

“ 6.  Platte  sand,  showing  grading  from  fine  to  coarse  grains...  32 

“ 7.  Preliminary  Geological  map  of  Nebraska,  show  distri- 
bution of  Pre-Tertiary  Formations 39 

“ 8.  Outcrop  of  Dakota  Sandstone  near  mouth  of  Salt  Creek, 

Cass  County 43 

9.  Gravel  in  the  Dakota  Formation 45 

10.  Preliminary  map  of  Nebraska  showing  areal  distribution  of 

the  Post-Cretaceous  Formations 47 

11.  Sand  in  the  Gering  Formation.  Photo  by  N.  H.  Darton  ....  48 

“ 12.  A pebble  channel  in  the  Arikaree 50 

13.  Bowlders  and  bowlder  clay  exposed  in  railroad  cut  twelve 

miles  west  of  Lincoln 53 

14.  Sand  pocket  in  Kansan  Till  near  Pleasant  Dale,  Nebraska.  54 

‘‘  15.  Glacial  sand  ridge  near  Fairbury 55 

“ 10.  Glacio-fluvial  sand  exposed  two  miles  northwest  of  DeWitt.  57 

17.  Dunesand,  Cherry  County.  Photo  by  R.  A.  Emerson 59 

“ 18.  Sandpit  near  Cambridge 01 

“ 19.  Hauling  and  loading  gravel.  Cedar  Creek 02 

“ 20.  Sand  pumping.  Meadow 03 

‘‘  21.  Sand  dredge,  Louisville,  formerly  owned  by  S.  H.  Atwood 

Company (5() 

‘‘  22.  The  Anchor  and  Stiff-knee,  or  Lower  Tower 08 

23.  Stiff-knee  and  Anchor  at  the  large  Lyman  Dredge.  Meadow  OH 

24.  Close  view  of  the  State’s  largest  clam  dredge 70 

‘‘  25.  An  unusual  form  of  clam  dredge  71 

“ 20.  Engine  sand  in  storage,  C.  B.  & Q.  railroad,  Lincoln 73 

“ 27.  Loading  sand  wagons  for  city  trade.  Photo  by  Roy  V. 

Pepperberg 75 

“ 28.  View  in  railroad  pit  at  Tekamah 77 

29.  Outline  showing  location  of  sand  pit  west  of  Tekamah 78 

“ 30.  Sand  pit  in  Dakota  Formation,  Bennett 81 

31.  Bank  of  glass  sand  near  Valentine 82 

“ 32.  Sandy  alluvium  along  the  Middle  Loup,  near  Halsey 85 

33.  Overloaded  North  Platte  near  Scott’s  Bluff.  Idioto  by  N. 

H.  Darton 87 

31.  Outline  showing  location  of  sand  pits  west  of  Fremont 92 

“ 35.  Fremont  Ice  Company  Dredge 92 

30.  Lyman  Dredge  west  of  Fremont 93 

“ 37.  Outline  showing  location  of  dredges  at  Valley 94 

.38.  Lyman  Dredge,  Valley 95 

39.  One  of  the  Woodworth  Dredges  at  Valley 90 

40.  Lyman  Dredge  on  C.  B.  & Q.  Railroad,  east  of  Ashland. ...  98 

“ 41.  Outline  showing  location  of  dredges  and  pits,  Meadow 100 

“ 42.  Large  lakes  j)roduced  by  sand  dredging  at  Meadow 100 

“ 43.  Lyman  Dredge  on  C.  R.  J.  & P.  R.  R.,  Meadow 101 

“ 44.  The  large  Lyman  Dredge  on  the  Missouri  Pacific,  Meadow.  102 

“ 15.  General  view  of  the  Lyman  Sand  Pumping  Station,  Meadow  103 

“ 40.  The  Woodworth  Dredge,  Meadow 105 

“ 47.  Outline  showing  the  location  of  dredges  at  Louisville 100 

“ 4S.  Platte  River  Sand  Com])any  Dredge 107 

“ 49.  Outline  showing  location  of  sand  ])rodiiction  at  ( ’edar  Creek  108 

“ 50.  The  S.  11.  Atwood  Company  Dredge,  Cedar  (’reek 110 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


51.  Sand  Pumping  near  Oreapolis Ill 

52.  Sand  and  gravel  pit,  Wahoo 115 

55.  Stratified  gdacial  sand  in  a railroad  cut  between  Milford  and 

Pleasant  Dale IKi 

51.  Outline  showing  the  arrangement  of  gravel  pits  formerly 

worked  southeast  of  Richfield 118 

55.  View  of  the  Upper  Van  Court  Gravel  Pit 118 

5fi.  View  of  the  Lower  Van  Court  Gravel  Pit 120 

57.  One  of  the  abandoned  gravel  pits  located  west  of  Cedar 

Creek 122 

• 58.  View  of  the  Omaha  Gravel  Company  plant  taken  when  oper- 
ation began 121 

59.  Omaha  Gravel  Company’s  plant,  Cedar  Cr<^ek 126 

60.  Cullom  Gravel  P t,  Photo  by  E.  G.  Woodruff 128 

61.  Section  of  Cullom  Gravel  Pit 129 

62.  Sand  Pit  near  Salem 150 

65.  The  Campbell  Sand  Pit  near  Brickton.  Photo  bv  Prof. 

E.  H.  Barbour ■; 155 

61.  Outline  showing  distribution  of  sand  and  gravel  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Fairbury 155 

()5.  Rock  Island  Sand  and  Gravel  Pit 156 

66.  One  type  of  concrete  mixer 151 

67.  A Concrete  Subway,  Milford 156 

68.  Concrete  Abutments  and  Piers  of  the  Rock  Island  Railroad 

near  Lincoln.  Photo  by  Prof.  E.  H.  Barbour 157 

6u.  Concrete  Dam  at  Beatrice.  Photo  by  Prof.  E.  H.  Barbour..  156 

70.  Reinforced  Conqrete  Reservoir  for  City  of  Lincoln  and  the 

University  of  Nebraska 159 

71.  House  of  L.  E.  Wetling,  Washington  St.  The  first  example 

of  a Monolithic  house  in  Lincoln 161 

72.  Artificial  Stone  Plant  at  Fairbury 162 

75.  Forms  of  Concrete  Blocks '■■■ 165 

71.  Concrete  Fence  Posts 167 

75.  Sand  used  in  brick  pavement,  Lincoln 170 

76.  Roofing  Gravel 175 

77.  Sherman  Hill  Ballast  on  U.  P.  R.  R.,  Kearney 175 

78.  Glacial  Gravel  Ballast  used  on  Northwestern  Railroad, 

Fremont 176  _ 

79.  Section  of  Sand  Ballast  used  on  C.  B.  &:  Q.  R.  R 177  ' 

80.  Hardening  cylinder  at  Hastings  Sand-lime  Brick  Plant....  181 

81.  General  view  of  Sand-lime  Brick  Plant,  Cedar  Rapids  Iowa.  185 

82.  Section  of  C.  B.  & Q.  Engine  Sand  House,  Lincoln 188 

85,  Sanding  an  Engine 189 


The  Sand  and  Gravel  Resources  and  Indu^ries 

of  Nebraska 


By 

GEORGE  EVKRT  CONDRA 


INTRODUCTORY 

Sand  and  gravel  are  Nebraska’s  most  important  mineral 
resources.  The  extensive  use  which  is  made  of  these  mater- 
ials in  the  building  and  trade  industries  not  only  in  our  own 
but  in  adjoining  states,  is  a factor  of  economic  importance  in 
the  industrial  development  of  Nebraska.  The  attention  of  the 
writer  was  incidentally  called  to  this  fact  in  1898  while  making 
a trip  through  southwestern  Iowa.  It  was  particularly  no- 
ticeable that  building  operations,  both  public  and  private,  were 
retarded  in  consequence  of  the  inability  to  get  prompt  ship- 
ments of  Nebraska  sand.  This  condition  suggested  the  advisa- 
bility of  making  a study  of  This  particular  resource,  the  results 
of  which  are  embodied  in  this  report.  The  course  of  this  in- 
vestigation in  the  collection  of  data  has  extended,  at  intervals, 
over  a period  of  nine  years. 

Field  Studies. — Field  studies  covering  most  of  the  state  were 
carried  on  in  connection  with  the  State  Geological  Survey  and 
the  Federal  Survey.  The  leading  objects  of  such  investigations 
were  to  determine  th’e  quantity,  quality,  and  accessibility  of  the 
various  arenaceous  deposits.  It  seems  more  important  that  our 
citizens  should  know  the  location,  character,  and  extent  of  this 


li 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


particular  resource,  the  development  of  which  is  to  assume 
larger  and  larger  proportions,  than  for  them  to  learn  of  the 
present  development  only.  To  this  end  each  sand-bearing 
formation  was  traced  along  its  line  or  area  of  outcrop  in  the 
state  and  studied  in  detail.  Consecpiently,  the  stratigraphic 
distribution  of  the  various  arenaceous  formations  receives  more 
emphasis  in  this  report  than  is  usual  in  similar  papers. 

Anoth.er  phase  of  field  3tudy  was  to  gather  data  respecting 
the  various  methods  of  mining  and  the  amount  of  production 
in  the  various  localities.  At  each  dredge  and  pit  data  were 
obtained  on  the  location,  form  and  size  of  the  onening;  on  the 
amount,  quantity  and  value  of  the  production  : on  the  method 
of  mining,  the  amount  of  labor  employed,  and  on  the  use  and 
destination  of  the  product. 

Samples. — Samples  were  collected  from  the  principal  dredges 
and  pits  and  from  sand-bearing  formations  irrespective  of  pro- 
duction. In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  the  samples 
were  selected  with  considerable  care,  the  object  being  to  se- 


Fig-.  1.  View  in  the  Sand  Laboratory,  University  of  Nebraska. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 


15 


cure  an  average  of  the  pit-run  of  sand.  In  some  places  the 
<lifferent  grades  of  sand  were  collected  as  separate  samples. 
The  sands  \vere  shipped  to  the  Department  of  Geo^.ogy,  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska,  and  studied  in  the  sand  laboratory  (Figure 

I.). 

The  laboratory  is  equipped  with  all  apparatus  necessary  for 
testing  or  determining  the  leading  properties  of  sand,  except 
quantitive  chemical  analyses,  which  were  made  in  the  chemi- 
cal laboratories  of  the  Department  of  Chemistry. 

The  outline  followed  in  the  laboratory  studies  and  descrip- 
tions is  as  follows  : — 

1.  Color. 

2.  Mineral  and  rock  content. 

3.  Mechanical  analysis  by  sifting. 

4.  Sharpness  and  form  of  grain. 

5.  Specific  gravity,  and  weight  per  cubic  foot. 

6.  Voids — amount,  form,  size. 

7.  Cleanness — percent  of  dirt. 

8.  Chemical  composition 

Acknowledgement. — Among  the  many  persons  to  whom  the 
writer  is  indebted  for  assistance  of  one  kind  or  another  are  Pro- 
fessor Erwin  H.  Barbour,  Director  of  the  Nebraska  Ideological 
Survey;  C.  A.  Fisher  and  N.  H.  Darton  of  the  Federal  Survey; 
and  Professors  Chatburn,  Richards,  IMorse,  and  Stout  of  the  en- 
gineering departments.  The  University  of  Nebraska. 

Railroad  officials,  city  and  county  superintendents,  principals 
of  schools,  sand  ])roducers,  contractors  and  city  engineers  have 
sup])lied  information  most  willingly.  Professor  \\\  \\h  \\’oods, 
Dale  C.  Perrin,  Miss  May  Ihirdwell,  Mr.  Ross  Bates  and  Mrs. 
G.  K.  Condra  have  assisted  in  the  laboratory  tests  and  ])i*e])a- 
ration  of  manuscri])t.  The  Cornell  hjigraving  Com])any,  Rin- 
^coln,  made  the  half-tones  and  zinc  etchings. 


16 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  NATURE,  ORIGIN  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  SAND. 

Sand -is  a mass  of  small  rock  fragments  in  an  incoherent 
condition.  Its  grains  or  particles  usually  vary  in  form,  size  and 
kind.  This  condition  results  from  their  physiographic  history 
and  mineral  composition.  There  is  no  clearly  defined  distinc- 
tion between  sand  and  sandstone  except  that  the  one  is  ce- 
mented and  the  other  is  not.  A sandstone  with  weak  bond 
is  easily  crushed;  it  is  friable.  Under  mechanical  stress  it 
crumbles  to  sand  and  is  marketed  as  such. 

Coarse  sand  and  gravel  are  nearly  synonomous  as  trade 
terms,  and,  unless  otherwise  defined,  are  so  considered  in  this 
paper.  The  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  sand  are- 
briefly  described  at  other  places  in  this  report. 

ORIGIN  OF  SAND. 

An  examination  of  sand  serves  to  show  its  sedimentary 
nature  and  in  some  cases  its  origin.  Sand  is  formed  from 
the  older  rocks  of  the  granitoid  kinds  by  weathering.  Weath- 
ering of  solid  rock  is  the  first  step  in  the  origin  of  sand.  The 
primary  source  of  Nebraska  sand  is  in  the  mountains,  where 
massive  rocks  are  crumbling  as  a result  of  the  processes  of 
weathering  and  erosion.. 

Using  granite  for  illustration, — we  observe  that  it  is  com- 
posed of  three  or  four  minerals  which  resist  weathering  un- 
equally. They  are  quartz,  feldspar,  mica  and  often  hornblend. 
These  vary  in  physical  and  chemical  properties  and  hence  in 
their  rate  of  decay.  Among  the  chemical  processes  which 
act  in  rock  weathering  are  hydration,  oxidation  and  carbon- 
ation.  The  common  micas  withstand  chemical  decay,  but  are 


ORIGIN  OF  SAND 


17 


■weak  when  acted  upon  by  mechanical  force.  Feldspar  is  weak 
chemically,  but  relatively  strong  when  resisting  abrasion. 
Quartz  is  resistant  to  chemical  and  physical  weathering  and 
therefore  more  durable  than  the  other  minerals  of  granite. 
As  the  feldspars  and  micas  weather  and  break  down,  the  quartz 
component  is  loosened  from  its  position  in  the  rock  and  thereby 
•exposed  to  the  action  of  rain,  wind,  and  streams.  The  next 
steps  in  sand  formation  are  the  transportation  and  the  deposi- 
tion of  these  rock  fragments.  The  important  agent  in  this 
work  is  running  water  which  gathers  rock  waste  from  large 
areas  and  moves  it  to  places  of  lodgment  along  valleys,  and 
finally  to  lakes  or  to  the  sea.  Running  water  deposits  its 
load  on  valley  bottoms,  in  lakes,  and  along  seashores.  Only 
the  most  resistant  minerals,  such  as  quartz,  can  withstand  the 
-abrasive  effect  of  transportation  for  long  distances  down 
stream.  On  this  account  quartz  becomes  the  most  abundant 
sand-forming  mineral.  The  weaker  minerals  break  into  min- 
ute particles,  are  carried  down  stream,  and  settle  as  very  fine 
sediment. 

Grains  of  sand,  while  being  carried  long  distances  down 
stream,  are  reduced  in  size  by  both  mechanical  and  chemical 
:action. 

The  largest  loads  of  sand  are  carried  by  streams  during 
flood  stages.  Some  rivers,  like  the  Platte,  become  over-loaded 
with  sediment  and  build  u])  deep,  broad,  sandy  flood  plains. 

In  some  places  sand  deposits  are  lieing  formed,  not  from 
granitoid  rocks,  but  from  sedimentary  rocks.  Streams  head- 
ing in  sandstone  formations  best  illustrate  this  condition. 
'They  break  sandstone  into  sand  and  carry  it  down  stream,  and 
deposit  it  where  it  is  found  accessible  for  commercial  use.  (Fig. 
2). 

It  should  be  observed  that  in  this  case  the  sand  is  changed 
■only  in  ])osition  ; it  is  sinqily  transferred.  Sandy  soils  and 
•other  arenaceous  de])osits  yield  enough  sand  under  these  con- 
•<litions  to  result  in  the  accumulation  of  (lei)osits  of  considerable 
Importance  along  certain  small  streams.  Professor  h.  11. 


18 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fig.  2.  A sand  draw  between  Endicott  and  Steele.  Jefferson  County. 
Tne  source  of  this  sand  is  Dakota  Formation,  the  es- 
carpment of  which  shows  in  the  distance. 


Barlioiir  has  found  hy  mechanical  analyses,  that  an  average 
soil  of  the  state  contains  c'ay,  14.5  parts;  si't  and  very  fine  silt, 
about  31  parts;  very  fine  sand,  36  parts;  line  sand,  7.5  parts; 
medium  sand,  coarse  sand  and  gravel,  3.5  parts;  organic  mat- 
ter, 4 parts;  moisture,  3.5  parts. 

W’ind  and  ice  are  factors  in  sand  formation.  UsuaTy,  how- 
ever, they  supplement  aqueous  agencies.  The  wind-formed 
sands  are,  for  the  most  part,  derived  from  arenaceous,  water- 
made  formations. 

In  concluding  this  topic,  we  may  say  that  rock  disruption  and 
sand  formation  have  continued  from  early  geologic  time  to  the- 
present  and  that  much  of  Nebraska’s  sand  has  been  worked 
over  several  times  in  different  deposits  since  it  was  first  de- 
rived from  the  older  rocks. 


CLASSIFICATION 


19 


CLASSIFICATION. 

It  is  not  deemed  advisaliT  to  enter  upon  a minute  technical 
description  of  the  classification  of  sands.  The  purpose  of  this 
paper  will  be  attained  if  notice  be  taken  that  among  the  bases 
of  classification  are  such  as  the  physical  properties,  chemical 
compositition,  mineral  and  rock  composition,  geological  occur- 
rence, method  of  formation,  and  use. 

For  practical  purposes.  Civil  Engineers  emphasize  the  me- 
chanical analysis,  and  classify  sands  as  fine,  medium,  an<l 
coarse.  If  chemical  analysis  is  the  basis,  sands  are  termed  sili- 
cious,  calcareous,  and  ferruginous.  Adieu  composed  princi- 
pally of  a single  minerak  a sand  may  take  the  name  of  that 
mineral, — i.  e.  if  the  mineral  be  quartz,  the  sand  would  be 
known  as  quartz  sand.  From  a geographic  or'  stratigraphic 
point  of  view  a sand  is  often  named  from  the  locafity  or  from 
the  formation  in  which  it  occurs.  Adieu  classed  according  to 
origin,  it  is  known  as  aeolian,  river,  glacial,  lake,  or  beach 
sand. 

Various  names,  such  as  glass,  engine,  concrete,  and  molding 
sand  designate  uses,  and  in  a way  the  properties  of  the  sand. 
Reference  will  now  he  made  to  some  particular  designations, 
such  as  quicksand,  black  sand,  coral  sand,  and  auriferous  sand. 

Quicksand. — Adiat  is  quicksand?  This  cfuestion  has  been 
put  to  the  writer  many  times,  and  usually  by  persons  who  sup- 
pose that  such  (lei)osits  occur  very  generally  throughout  Ne- 
braska but  more  jiarticularly  along  the  Platte  River. 

It  may  be  noted  that  jilasterers  ajijily  the  name  to  any  fine 
sand  of  light  weight,  d'he  term  a])])ears,  however,  to  have  its 
widest  meaning  not  in  the  size  of  grain,  hut  in  a condition  of 
de])osit  and  to  unfortunate  circumstances  connected  therewith. 
Objects  ])laced  on  loosely  conqiacted,  water-filled,  fine  sand 
sink  from  sight,  hence  it  is  the  conditions  and  circumstances 
rather  than  the  composition  which  have  given  meaning  to  the 
term.  Fine  ungraded  sand  has  much  void  space;  when  it  is 
loosely  conqiacted  and  is  waterfilled  it  becomes  very  mobile. 


20 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


The  form  of  grain,  though  a factor, appears  to  affect  the  mobil- 
ity less  than  is  popularly  supposed. 

Black  Sands. — These  are  composed  usually  of  magnetite, 
occasionally  of  hematite.  The  dark  sands  may  be  stained  by 
pyrolusite.  The  iron  sands  are  formed  by  streams,  which 
gather  the  fragments  from  crumbling  rock  ledges  and  concen- 
trate them  in  small  quantities  along  stream  courses.  A 
similar  sand  is  formed  at  the  sea  shore.  l\Iany  citizens  of 
western  Kansas  and  western  Nebraska  have  wrongly  thought 
that  black  sands  often  found  in  those  localities  indicate  the 
presence  of  gold.  It  has  been  proved  conclusively  by  Pro- 
fessor Haworth  of  the  Kansas  Geological  Survey  that  such 
deposits  should  not  be  regarded  as  gold-bearing.  Recently 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  fully  investigated  the 
problem  of  the  black  sand  and  published  bulletins  thereon. 

Volcanic  Ash. — This  is  a light  colored,  sharp,  angular- 
grained volcanic  dust.  Strictly  speaking  it  is  not  sand.  Yet 
there  are  points  of  similarity.  The  deposits  occur  at  many 
places  in  the  central  and  western  counties  where  the  commer- 
cial product  is  known  as  silica.  Some  people  have  urged  the 
u<^e  of  volcanic  ash  as  a substitute  for  sand  in  the  manufacture 
of  sand-lime  brick.  However,  we  may  say  that  thus  far  no 
demonstration  has  fully  proved  the  value  of  this  material  for 
brick-making. 

Coral  Sand . — In  our  state  we  are  accustomed  to  the  hard 
grained  sands,  composed  mostly  of  quartz.  However  there 
are  places  in  other  lands  where  such  a sand  is  never  seen,  be- 
cause of  the  absence  of  quartz-bearing  rocks.  During  the 
past  year  Professor  E.  H.  Barbour  visited  the  Bermuda  Islands 
and  while  there  codected  a light  colored,  soft  grained  coral 
sand.  In  many  respects  it  is  an  interesting  sample,  but  mainly 
because  of  its  dissimi'arity  to  the  Nebraska  sands.  This  Ber- 
muda sand  consists  of  the  small  fragments  of  the  calcareous 
skeletons  of  corals,  mollusks  and  other  sea  animals.  It  is 
made  by  the  action  of  waves. 

Auriferous  Sand. — Much  interest  is  occasioned  at  times  by 


MINERAL  AND  ROCK  COMPOSITION 


21 


the  finding  of  sand  which  is  thought  by  certain  persons  to  be 
^old  bearing.  Usually  the  cause  of  such  excitement  is  the 
presence  of  small  flakes  of  bronze-colored  mica  which  are 
wrongly  identified  as  gold.  Many  of  such  finds  have  been  sent 
to  the  Department  of  Geology  at  the  University.  A number 
of  the  samples,  when  analyzed,  showed  traces  of  gold.  The 
conclusion  has  been  reached  that  practically  all  of  the  large  sand 
deposits  in  the  state  carry  slight  traces  of  gold,  but  not  of  eco- 
nomic importance.  At  a few  places  native  copper,  in  the  form 
of  small  nuggets  in  glacial  sand,  has  been  mistaken  for  gold. 

MINERAL  AND  ROCK  COMPOSITION. 

Sand  is  composed  of  mineral  and  rock  fragments.  The  bulk 
of  the  state's  fine  sand  consists  of  mineral  fragments,  mostly 
quartz,  whereas  the  coarse  sands  contain  a larger  amount  of 
feldspar  and  broken  pieces  of  rock.  Occasionally  a large  grain 
or  a pebble  contains  no  more  than  one  mineral,  but  such  is  the 
exception  and  not  the  rule. 

By  examining  a sand  sample  we  observe  that  its  fragments 
differ  in  several  ways,  namely  in  color,  hardness,  cleavage, 
and  fracture.  This  variegated  appearance  is  due  to  the  min- 
eral and  rock  composition.  The  minerals  and  rocks  are  readily 
determined  by  their  physical  properties,  and  without  the  use 
of  a microscope  if  the  grains  are  large.  However,  in  most 
cases  a microscopic  examination  is  indispensable,  if  accurate  re- 
sults are  desired. 

The  quality  of  a sand  is  controlled  very  largely  by  its  mineral 
and  rock  composition.  For  this  reason  the  leading  sand-form- 
ing minerals  and  rocks  are  herein  described.  This  will  enalile 
contractors  and  builders  to  determine  sands  more  accurately 
and  to  select  them  from  a lithological  basis. 

Quartz. — 'i'his  is  the  most  abundant  rock-forming  mineral. 
It  is  an  essential  ingredient  of  granite  and  similar  rocks.  It 
constitutes  the  bulk  of  siliceous  sands  and  sandstones,  and  a 
considerable  part  of  the  soil.  When  pure,  (piartz  is  glassy  and 


09 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


transparent,  but  if  it  contains  iron,  day  or  calcareous  impuri- 
ties, it  is  then  dark,  reddish,  or  grayish,  and  translucent  to 
opaque.  Its  distinctive  properties  are  vitreous  lustre,  hardness, 
conchoidal  fracture,  lack  of  c'eavage  and  inso'ubihty  in  ordinary 
acids.  The  mineral  is  harder  than  either  the  knife  b’ade  or  g-ass. 
According  to  mine'ralogists  it  is  seven  in  the  scale.  Quartz 
breaks  like  g’ass  in  most  cases.  The  fragments  vary  much  in 
form,  but  as  a rule  they  are  somewhat  e^ongated.  Fresh’y  frac- 
tured grains  are  very  sharp.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  2.6  and 
the  chemical  composition.  Si  O2. 

Small  grains  resemble  gravel  and  pebbles  in  form  as  may 
be  seen  by  examination.  Fine  sand  contains  mostly  vitreous 
quartz.  Flint  is  present  sometimes  as  either  angifiar  fragments 
or  rounded  pebb'es  in  coarse  sands  and  gravels.  1\I ilky  quartz, 
smoky  quartz,  chalcedony,  and  agate  are  also  sand-forming  va- 
rieties of  quartz. 

Feldspar. — Orthoc’ase  holds  first  place  as  a sand-forming 
species  of  feldspar.  It  constitutes  most  of  the  reddish,  pinkish, 
and  grayish  fragments  in  sand.  It  cleaves  in  two  directions  as 
may  be  observed  by  examining  freshly  broken  specimens  in 
which  the  cleavage  faces  are  flat,  shining  and  tabular.  Feld- 
spar will  scratch  but  not  cut  glass ; it  is  six  in  the  scale  of 
hardness  and  therefore  slightly  softer  than  quartz.  The 
specific  gravity  is  about  2.57  and  the  chemical  composition 
K2O.  AI2O3.  6Si02.  The  color  and  c’eavage  are  properties 
which  serve  to  distinguish  orthoclase  from  quartz.  Next  to 
quartz,  feldspar  is  the  most  abundant  mineral  in  coarse  sands. 
Its  quantity  decreases  in  the  finer  sands. 

Mica. — This  mineral  has  little  importance  in  sand.  It  is 
found  in  mere  traces,  as  small,  shining  plates,  which  are  in- 
correctly called  isinglass  by  many  persons.  The  characteristic 
properties  of  mica  are  its  easy  cleavage,  softness  and  elasticity. 
If  not  too  badly  weathered  mica  can  be  c’eaved  into  very  thin 
elastic  sheets  with  a knife.  The  hardness  is  three  in  the  min- 
eralogist’s scale.  Two  species,  muscovite  (light  colored)  and 
biotite  (dark  colored)  are  most  common.  Their  chemical  com-, 
position  is  (H3K)  A1  Si  O4  (Muscovite),  and  (H,K)2  (Mg, 


MINERAL  AND  ROCK  COMPOSITION 


23 


Fe)2  AI2  (Si  04)3  (Biotite).  The  latter  species,  when  liadly 
decayed,  appears  yellowish,  and  in  this  condition  is  by  some 
erroneously  called  gold.  Even  a hasty  examination,  testing 
with  the  point  of  a knife  blade,  should  show  the  dissimilarity  of 
the  two  minerals. 

Hornblende. — This  mineral  is  a constituent  of  granite,  syen- 
ite and  certain  schists,  and  becomes  a sand  material,  along  with 
quartz  and  feldspar.  It  has  little  importance  in  this  connection 
since  it  is  present  only  in  mere  traces. 

The  mineral  may  be  identified,  but  not  conclusively,  by  its 
dark  color,  coal-like  appearance,  prismatic  form  of  fragment, 
and  by  a cTavage  which  is  parallel  to  the  prism,  faces.  The 
hardness  is  five  to  six  in  the  scale  and  the  specific  gravity  3.2 
to  3-3- 

Calcite. — This  mineral  is  calcium  carbonate  in  composition, 
the  essential  ingredient  of  limestone.  It  occurs  principal'y  as  a 
cement  in  the  form  of  a binder  and  coating  of  grains,  giving  the 
sand  or  sandstones  a light  color.  The  presence  of  calcite  in 
considerabT  quantities  affects  the  use  and  treatment  of  sand. 
In  most  cases  the  percent  is  very  low.  Ordinary  acids  cause 
calcite  to  effervesce,  and  by  this  means  the  presence  of  the 
mineral  is  detected,  hydrochloric  acid  being  used  ordinarily. 

A\  hen  present  in  crystal  form,  calcite  is  a vitreous  mineral, 
which  cleaves  readily  in  three  directions,  producing  small 
rhombohedra  which  resemble  a box  pushed  over  on  a corner. 
The  hardness  is  three  in  the  scale  or  just  a little  above  that  of 
mica.  Mica  and  calcite  are  each  softer  than  a knife. 

Iron  Oxides. — Of  these,  we  find  magnetite,  hematite  and  li- 
monite  leading  in  quantities.  Magnetite  ( Fe  O.  Fe2  O3)  occurs 
as  disseminated  grains  and  may  be  sejiarated  and  identified 
by  the  use  of  a small  magnet  to  which  it  adheres.  The  parti- 
cles are  dark,  sub-s])herical  to  angular  imforiuv  and  heavier  than 
quartz.  The  s])ecific  gravity  is  4.4  to  4.45.  Hematite  (Fe2()3), 
or  the  iron  which  gives  the  reddish  streak  or  powder,  occurs  in 
sand  mostly  as  a stain  or  an  im])urity.  Jt  is  either  ochreous  or 
hard.  'J'he  felds])ars  contain  this  oxide  in  their  composition. 
Limonite  (2Fe203.3ll20)  or  yellowish  oxide  of  iron  is  one  of 


24 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


the  principal  impurities  in  dirty  sands.  Usually  it  is  more 
ochreous  than  the  hematite. 

Manganese  Oxide. — The  manganese  mineral  that  occurs 
in  Nebraska  sands  is  Pyrolusite.  It  is  either  a filler  or  a loose 
cement  and  consequently  an  impurity.  In  color,  lustre  and  ap- 
pearance it  resembles  a pulverized  soft  coal. 

Other  Minerals. — Varieties  of  garnet  and  tourmaline  seem 
to  be  the  most  common  of  these,  though  not  plentiful.  Small 
fragments  of  rutile,  stream  tin,  glauconite,  chlorite,  and 
even  of  native  copper  and  gold  have  been  found.  Pyrite  or  sul- 
phide of  iron  occurs  in  the  sand-bearing  formations  of 
Pennsylvanian  and  Cretaceous  age  where  the  rocks  are  not 
much  weathered. 

Clay. — Some  sands  are  argillaceous,  i.  e.  clayey.  The  clay 
content  may  be  regarded  as  an  impurity.  It  is  fine  textured 
and  plastic  if  moist. 

Sand-forming  Rocks. — Of  these,  there  is  a large  number  in- 
cluding granites,  syenites,  basalt,  porphyry,  rhyolite,  andesite, 
trap  rocks,  gneiss,  schists,  slates,  conglomerates,  sandstones, 
quartzites  and  limestones. 

Pieces  of  granite,  usually  rounded,  have  a mottled  appearance 
due  to  pinkish  or  reddish  feldspar  and  light-colored  or  trans- 
parent quartz.  Small  bits  of  mica  and  hornblende  are  also 
found  in  many  of  the  fragments. 

Syenite  is  a granitoid  rock  composed  of  orthoclase  and  horn- 
blende, augjte  or  mica.  It  contains  no  quartz. 

Basalt  is  heavy,  dark  gray  in  color,  and  usually  vesicular. 

Rhyolites  are  semicrystalline,  light-colored,  igneous  rocks, 
composed  of  crystals  and  a ground  mass.  The  crystals  are 
plagioclase,  quartz  and  hornblende. 

Andesite  usually  is  darker  than  rhyolite.  Some  of  the  an- 
desites show  porphyritic  structure  very  distinctly. 

Several  other  igneous  rocks  have  been  identified  in  the  sands 
and  gravels,  but  they  are  present  only  in  small  quantities. 
Trap  rocks,  usually  badly  weathered,  have  been  collected,  but 
not  studied. 


PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES 


25 


Gneiss,  as  far  as  its  mineral  content  is  concerned,  resembles 
granite,  with  which  it  is  often  confused.  Structurally  gneiss 
has  its  minerals  segregated  more  or  less  into  bands,  due  to  the 
mode  of  formation.  This  rock  is  an  important  sand  pro- 
ducer. 

The  schists  are  represented  in  the  coarse  glacial  materials 
and  may  be  recognized  by  their  schistose  structure.  Mica  and 
hornblende  schists  are  not  uncommon. 

Sandstone  occurs  in  pieces  in  all  the  sands  and  gravels. 

Quartzites,  because  of  their  strong  siliceous  cement  or  ma- 
trix, are  harder  and  more  durable  than  other  sandstones. 
Sioux  quartzites,  and  similar  rocks  in  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
have  contributed  quite  largely  to  the  formation  of  sands  and 
gravels.  At  places,  quite  large  pinkish  to  reddish  pebbels  and 
boulders  of  these  have  been  observed.  Limestone  fragments, 
pieces  of  flint  and  chert,  and  siliceous  fossils  occur  in  sands  in 
the  south-eastern  counties. 

PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES. 

The  following  brief  description  of  the  . leading . properties 
should  be  of  service  to  sand  producers  and  consumers  since  the 
quality  often  determines  the  use.  The  market  value  of  a sand 
depends,  among  other  things,  upon  the  fitness  of  the  material 
for  specific  purposes. 

Color. — This  property  has  little  importance,  except  as  it  is 
of  service  in  the  identification  of  sand-forming  minerals  and 
impurities  which  control  color.  Fine  quartz  sand  containing 
small  quantities  of  clay  and  mica  is  dove  colored.  Quartz 
sand  free  from  other  minerals,  is  white  to  grayish.  Small  dark 
grains  of  any  kind  make  the  grays  darker;  reddish  minerals 
produce  mottled  pinks;  reddish  and  pink  feldspars,  when  pres- 
ent in  considerable  quantities  as  large  grains,  give  the  mottled 
flesh  colors;  and  the  iron  stains  are  black,  yellow  and  brown. 

Cleanness. — By  this  is  meant  the  purity  of  the  sand.  'Phe 
most  common  impurities  are  soil,  clay,  and  iron  stain,  which 
occur  in  the  forms  of  a sand  filler  and  as  a coating  on  grains. 


26 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


A perfectly  c’ean  quartz  sand  will  not  soil  the  hand  or  hand- 
kerchief. Such  a degree  of  cleanness  is  rarely  found  in  nature. 
A sand  may  contain  impurities  in  such  amounts  as  to  restrict 
the  use  or  to  cause  it  to  be  washed  before  using. 

]\Iost  sands  of  the  state  are  characterized  by  their  high  de- 
gree of  cleanness,  but  much  of  the  gravel  is  dirtv.  The  amount 
of  impurity  is  determined  by  elutriation.  A certain  quantity 
of  dry  sand  is  weigned  and  placed  in  a vessel:  water  is  added; 
the  sand  and  water  are  agitated  by  stirring  them  vigorously. 
Then,  after  standing  a certain  number  of  seconds,  the  dis- 
colored water  is  poured  off  and  the  processes  ot  adding  water, 
stirring  and  decanting  are  repeated  until  the  water  ceases  to 
become  turbid,  or  as  many  times  as  is  necessary  to  clean  the 
sand.  After  this,  the  residue  is  dried  and  weighed.  The 
difference  between  the  first  and  second  weights,  i.  e.  before  and 
after  washing,  shows  the  amount  of  impurity.  The  percent  of 
dirt  is  found  by  calculation  in  which  one  finds  what  percent 
the  impurity  is  of  the  original  weight.  The  loss  of  sand  grains 
must  be  guarded  against  in  this  determination.  Usually  it  is 
of  no  practical  importance  to  determine  the  amount  of  dirt  in 
Nebraska  sand,  the  percent  being  small. 

The  condition  of  purity  may  be  judged  loosely  by  the  physi- 
cal appearance  of  a sand  or  gravel.  It  may  be  determined 
quite  accurately  by  chemical  analysis. 

Fineness  or  Size  of  Grain. — This  property  demands  careful 
consideration  when  sand  is  used  for  construction.  Several 
devices  for  determining  fineness  are  used,  but.  of  these  the 
micrometer  and  the  sieve  are  most  generally  employed.  iNIi- 
crometer  measurements  Avhich  are  made  with  a microscope,  are 
quit  reliable,  but  are  not  readily  enough  determined  to  be  of 
practical  value  in  testing.  Sifting  is  preferred  in  most  cases. 
The  sieves  used  by  the  writer  (Figure  3.)  are  circular  in  form. 
6 in.  in  diameter,  inside  measurement,  and  2^4  in.  deep.  The 
cloth  bottom,  made  of  brass  wire,  is  firmly  mounted  ^4  in.  above 
the  lower  rim  of  each  sieve.  The  diameter  of  the  wire  varies 
with  the  size  of  the  mesh,  but  not  proportionately.  ffThe  follow- 
ing sieves,  classed  according  to  the  number  of  meshes  per  linear 


PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES 


27 


Figure  3.  Sieves. 

inch,  were  used  in  sand  testing,  lo,  20,  30,  40,  50,  60,  80,  90, 
and  100.  In  some  cases  numljer  140  was  used.  Gravels  were 
tested  with  numbers  2,  4,  6,  and  10. 

The  following  outline  shows  the  average  diameter  of  the 
coarsest  partic'es  that  pass  certain  meshes  and  ahso  the  diame- 
ter of  the  wire  used  in  the  construction  of  the  cloth. 


Mesh 

1 Diameter  of  Wire 

1 (Inch) 

Diameter  of  Sand  Crains  Passing? 
in  Millimeters  and  less 

2)0 

.002.35 

.085  and  less 

1 00 

.0045 

.170 

H) 

.0075 

. 230 

oO 

.0000 

.320 

*10 

.01025 

.500 

.30 

.oi;r; 

.070 

20 

.01050 

1 .000 

10 

.027 

2.000 

28 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


There  is  no  uniformity  in  the  method  of  sifting,  but  in  al! 
cases  the  plan  is  to  pass  the  sand  through  the  sieves  in  such  a 
way  as  to  separate  the  grains  into  different  sizes,  the  object 
being  to  determine  the  percent  of  each  size.  Some  operators 
begin  with  the  coarse  sieves ; others  with  the  fine.  The 
sifting  is  done  either  by  hand  or  with  mechanical  shakers.  In 
cement  testing,  the  general  practice  is  to  start  with  the  finest 
mesh,  using  only  one  sieve  at  a time.  The  cement  passing" 
this  is  caught  on  a paper  and  not  further  handled.  The 
residue,  on  the  sieve,  is  weighed  and  transferred  to  the  next 
sieve  and  the  process  continued  until  the  test  is  finished. 

In  sand  testing,  the  practice  of  starting  with  the  fine  sieve  is 
coming  into  more  general,  though  not  universal,  use.  If  sift- 
ing is  done  by  mechanical  sifters  and  a nest  of  sieves  is  used, 
the  operator  usually  begins  with  the  coarse  mesh  sieve  and 
works  towards  the  finer.  This  is  done  usually  by  weighing  up* 
a certain  number  of  grains  or  ounces  of  sand  and  sifting  through 
one  sieve  at  a time  or  through  the  nest  of  sieves,  using  as  many 
numbers  as  are  needed  for  the  test.  After  the  mechanical  act 
of  lifting  is  finished  the  residue  on  each  sieve  is  weighed 
separately.  The  sand  caught  on  a given  sieve  is  that  which  pas- 
ses the  next  coarser  number  in  the  nest.  By  computation,  the 
percent  of  sand  which  either  passes  or  is  retained  on  each 
sieve  is  determined. 

The  percent  of  sand  passing  each  sieve  starting  with  the 
fine  meshes  is  shown  as  follows : 

Passing  100  mesh,  3 per  cent. 


( i 

80 

u 

7 

( ( 

u 

50 

( ( 

30 

( ( 

(< 

40 

(( 

52 

U, 

( ( 

30 

n 

14 

u 

( ( 

20 

( ( 

14 

it 

( ( 

10 

n 

10 

(i 

PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES 


29 


The'  amount  retained  on  each  sieve,  when  the  sifting  starts 
with  the  coarser  meshes,  is  represented  as  follows : 

Retained  on  10  mesh  sieve  4 per  cent 


20 

( ; 

12 

80 

ip 

16 

40 

‘ • 

30 

50 

20 

80 

; ; 

9 

100 

4 ; 

8 

According  to  mechanical  analyses,  sands  are — 

Fine,  the  grains  being  0.5  mm.  or  0.02  inch  in  diameter. 
Medium,  the  grains  being  2.  mm.  or  0.08  inch  in  diameter. 
Coarse,  the  grains  being  5.  mm.  or  0.20  inch  in  diameter. 

Coarse  sand  is  also  known  as  gravel,  but  as  yet  there  is  no 
generally  accepted  distinction  lietween  the  two. 

]\Iuch  of  Nebraska’s  sand  is  either  fine  or  medium.  It  is 
not  readily  classed  according  to  the  size  of  the  grain  because 
of  the  fact  that  in  most  cases  it  is  graded. 

Standard  sands  based  on  the  size  of  grain  have  been  adopted 
in  most  countries.  For  a number  of  years  a ])ure  quartz, — 
crushed  and  screened  to  ])ass  the  20-mesh  and  caught  on  the 
30-mesh,  not  more  than  one  jiercent  jiassing, — has  been  the 
standard  in  the  United  States.  Recently,  the  American 
Society  for  4'esting  Materials  re])orted  as  follows:  “h^or  the 
present,  the  Committee  recommends  the  natural  sand  from 
( )ttawa,  Illinois,  screened  to  ])ass  a sieve  having  20  meshes 
])cr  linear  inch  and  retained  on  a sieve  having  30  meshes  ])er 
linear  inch;  the  wires  to  have  diameters  of  0.0165  and  0.0112 
inches  res])cctively,  i.  e.  half  the  width  of  the  opening  in  each 
case.  Sand  having  passed  the  No.  20  sieve  shall  be  considered 
standard  when  not  more  than  one  ])cr  cent  ]>asses  a number 
30  sieve  after  one  minute  continuous  sifting  of  a 500  grain 
sam])’e.”  iMigineers  now  favor  the  Ottawa  standard  rather 
than  the  artificial  sand. 

If  a sand  does  not  have  the  degree  of  fineness  desired  for 


30 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


any  particular  purpose  it  can  be  either  ground,  screened  or 
graded  to  the  proper  condition  as  the  case  may  demand. 

Graded  sands  are  composed  of  grains  of  various  sizes,  vary- 
ing relatively  from  fine  to  coarse.  When  sifted  they  are 
caught,  in  part,  on  each  of  several  sieves.  The  degree  of  a 
sand’s  uniformity,  showing  whether  the  grains  are  mainly  of 
the  same  size,  or  whether  there  is  a great  range  in  their  diame- 
ters, is  designated  by  what  is  cahed  the  “uniformity  coefficient.” 
This  is  ol^tained  by  sifting  the  sample;  plotting  a curve  to 
show  the  percent  of  each  size  of  grain  according  to  a millimeter 
or  inch  measurement  (Figure  4.)  ; and  erecting  at  right  angles 


Figure  t.  Diagram  to  show  uniformity  coefficient. 

from  the  base  (which  shows  the  diameter  of  grains)  two  lines 
to  the  points  where  the  curved  line  intersects  the  10  per  cent 
and  60  per  cent  lines.  The  vertical  lines  thus  drawn  vary  in 
distance  apart,  if  plotted  for  different  sands.  In  the  figure, 
the  verticals  are  erected  from  the  .25  and  i.  millimeter  points. 


PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES 


31 


The  ratio  between  i and  .25  is  4,  the  uniformity  coefficient. 

‘'As  a provisional  l)asis  winch  best  agrees  with  the  known 
facts,  the  size  of  grain  where  the  curve  cuts  the  ten  percent 
line  is  considered  to  be  the  ‘effective  size'  of  the  material. 
This  size  is  such  that  ten  percent  of  the  material  is  of  smaller 
grains,  and  90  percent  is  of  larger  grains  than  the  size  given.'’ 
The  ‘uniformity  coefficient'  is  a term  used  to  designate  the 
ratio  of  the  size  of  grain  which  has  60  percent  of  the  sample 
finer  than  itself  to  the  size  which  has  10  percent  finer 
than  itself."  i 

The  writer  is  now  determining  the  uniformity  coefficient  of 
each  of  the  leading  sands  of  the  state,  the  results  to  be  published 
in  a later  report. 

The  degree  of  fineness  of  a sand  is  sometimes  determined 
and  designated. 


Fif^.  5.  Stiarp,  angular  and  round  quart//  (b)  and  feldspar  (a)  grains. 

Sharpness  and  Form  of  Grain. — 1'hese  related  properties  are 
usually  over  emphasized  by  builders  who,  with  few  exception^', 

I Hazen,  pp.  54t^,  550,  Kept.  St.  Board  of  Health,  Massachusetts,  1892. 


32 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Specify  “sharp  sand”  for  any  and  all  uses.  Experiments  made 
during  recent  years  seem  to  discredit  these  early  assumptions 
and  to  show  real  virtue  in  the  rounded  grains  for  certain 
purposes. 

The  highest  degree  of  sharpness  is  found  in  crushed  quartz, 
(Figure  5)  Fe’dspar,  simi’ariy  treated,  is  likewise  sharp,  but 
its  grains  have  c'eavage  faces  (Figure  5).  Natural  abrasion 
incident  to  the  formation  of  sand  reduces  the  sharpness  and 
angularity  and  at  the  same  time  gives  the  grains  a more  regular 
form.  Sand  is  classed  as  sharp,  angidar,  and  round  (Figure 
5).  The  grains  when  much  rounded  are-sub-spherical  in  foriii. 


Fig.  G.  Platte  sand,  showing  grading  from  fine  to  coarse  grains, 
magnified  two  diameters. 

^ The  sharpness  and  form  of  grain  are  best  determined  by  the 
use  of  a low  power  microscope  which  reveals  these  properties 
and  shows  another  feature,  the  nature  of  the  surface  of  the 
grains,  equally  well.  By  pressing  a sand  between  the  thuml> 


PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES 


33 


and  fingers  one  may  detect  its  grit  which  denotes  sharpness. 

It  has  been  proved  by  laboratory  tests  that  the  condition  of 
the  surface  of  sand  grains  as  regards  cleanness  and  roughnesb 
Is  a fundamentady  important  factor  which  should  demand  con- 
sideration in  the  selection  of  buihling  Sands.  Clean  sands,  the 
grains  of  which  show  faces  that  have  been  roughened  by 
abrasion  are  preferred  since  they  are  thought  to  produce  the 
•strongest  mortars. 

i\Iost  Nebraska  sands  are  either  angular  or  rounded,  not 
sharp. 

Specific  Gravity. — Sands  are  composed  mostly  of  minerals 
wdiose  specific  gravity  ranges  from  2.57  to  about  3,  taking 
water  as  the  standard.  Certain  minor  ingredients  are  consid- 
erably heavier.  Most  sands  range  in  specific  gravity  from 
about  2.6  to  2.66  the  average  being  about  2.64  or  2.65.  This 
property  has  no  very  important  place  in  practical  sand  testing, 
at  least  in  Nebraska,  where  its  variation  is  small.  However 
the  specific  gravity  of  each  leading  sand  has  been  determined. 
The  La  Chatelier  apparatus  was  used  in  making  the  tests. 

Weight. — The  weight  of  a sand  depends  upon  mineral  com- 
position, form,  size,  and  grading  of  grains,  and  the  amount  of 
•compaction.  The  round  grained  graded  sands  are  heaviest. 
The  weight  is  usually  given  in  grains  or  in  pounds,  the  volume 
of  sand  considered  being  a cubic  centimeter  or  a cubic  foot. 

The  simplest  and  best  method  for  practical  work  is  to  weigh 
a cubic  foot  of  sand  measured  in  some  standardized  vessel. 
Dry,  loose  sands  range  in  weight  from  75  to  115  pounds,  or 
more  per  cubic  foot.  Dry  sands  under  coiujiaction  range  be- 
tween -jO  and  125  lbs.  ]>er  cubic  foot.  When  the  weight  is 
100  lbs.  ]:er  cubic  foot,  a cubic  yard  of  sand  weighs  2700  lbs. 
In  testing  one  should  make  the  sanpile  moderately  com])act. 

Another  ])i*actise,  less  common  among  sand  users,  is  to  weigh 
up  100  c.  c.  of  sand  and  from  that  determine  the  weight  in  cubic 
feet  using  the  fo'lowing  fonmda:  “l^'rom  the  weight  in  grams 
of  100  c.  c.  of  sand  ....  obtained  in  the  determination  of  voids.  . 
-.,the  weight  per  cubic  foot  in  ])ounds  can  be  found  by  multi- 


34 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


plying-  by  the  factor  .625.”  Often  the  operator  Vvbshes  to  de- 
termine the  weight  of  a cubic  foot  of  sand  after  he  has  tested 
the  voids  and  specific  gravity.  The  following  description  shows 
a method  often  employed  where  a standard  measure  is  not  at 
hand. 

A cubic  foot  of  sand,  specific  gravity  2.65  wouM  weigh 
165.625  lbs.  if  it  had  no  voids.  Sand  is  sofid,  except  its  voids. 
Therefore  by  substracting  the  percent  of  voids  from  100,  we 
find  the  percent  of  sofid  material.  ' For  examp’e,  the  sample 
shows  Avoids  .35  and  specific  gravity  2.65.  Such  a sand  would 
Aveigh  165.625  lbs.  if  solid,  but  it  is  on’y  .65  percent  soud. 
Then  65  percent  of  165.625  lbs.  is  107.6^  lbs.,  the  weight  of  the 
cubic  foot  of  sand. 

As  a rule  Nebraska  sands  are  heavier  than  the  average  on 
account  of  their  form  of  grain  and  grading.  The  range  is  be- 
tween 88  and  124.8  lbs.  per  cubic  foot. 

Voids. — This  property  refers  to  the  pore  space  in  sand  and 
has  its  greatest  importance  Avben  the  sand  or  gravel  is  to  be 
used  for  concrete  construction  or  for  any  other  purpose  AAdiere 
the  voids  are  to  be  filled  Avith  cement.  The  interstices  are 
small  in  fine  sand  and  large  in  coarse  sand.  HoAveA'er,  the  total 
space  is  greater  in  fine  than  in  coarse  sand.  A graded  sand 
has  the  loAvest  percentage  of  voids,  especially  so  if  its  grains- 
are  rounded.  The  range  in  A'oids  of  Nebraska  sands  is  betAA^een: 
26  and  48  percent. 

Tavo  methods  are  employed  for  determining  Avoids.  In  one,, 
a given  bulk  of  sand  is  placed  in  a graduated  beaker  or  in  a re- 
ceptacle of  knoAvn  capacity  ; then  Avater  is  sloAvly  and  carefully 
introduced,  in  such  a manner  as  to  displace  all  of  the  air  in 
the  sand.  By  measuring  out  a certain  quantity  of  AA^ater,  plac- 
ing it  in  the  vessel  and  then  adding  sand,  the  test  is  made  Avith 
a larger  degree  of  accuracy.  The  amount  of  Avater  thus  in- 
troduced in  this  test  is  equal  in  volume  to  the  Avoids.  The  next 
step  is  to  determine  the  percent  of  the  voids.  The  hydration 
method  just  outlined,  because  of  probable  errors,  should  not 
be  used  excepting  in  testing  coarse  sand.  The  sources  of  error 
are  the  presence  of  moisture  in  the  sand  and  the  inability  of 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION 


35 


the  operator  to  remove  the  air  from  the  voids.  As  a result, 
tests  made  in  this  way  usually  show  too  little  void  space,  es- 
pecially in  fine  or  medium  sand.  A more  reliable  test  is  to 
place  the  water  in  a vessel  and  displace  it  with  sand  as  sug- 
gested above. 

The  other  method  of  testing  voids  is  known  as  the  specific 
gravity-weight  method.  The  first  step  is  to  find  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  sand,  which  usually  is  2.64  or  2.65.  Then  if  the 
specific  gravity  is  2.65,  100  c.  c.  of  the  sand,  if  sofid,  should 
weigh  265  grams.  But,  if  we  weigh  100  c.  c.  of  sand  the  result 
is  not  265  grams,  but  only  about  163  grams,  or  102  grams  less 
than  it  would  weigh  if  there  were  no  voids.  The  difference  in 
weight  is  due  to  the  voids.  Next,  by  finding  what  ])ercent 
102  is  of  265  we  have  38.49  which  is  the  percent  of  voids. 

In  many  cases  sand  users  find  it  most  convenient  to  use  the 
cubic  foot.  The  determination  then,  is  as  follows — The  speci- 
fic gravity  being  2.65,  sand,  if  solid,  would  weigh  165.625  lbs. 
per  cubic  foot.  The  actual  weight,  however,  is  much  less  be- 
cause of  the  voids.  If  the  weight  is  no  lbs.'  we  have  a deficit  of 

55.625  lbs.  per  cubic  foot.  This  represents  the  weight  of  saixi 
which  would  be  required  to  fill  the  voids.  The  rule  is,  to 
weigh  up  a cubic  foot  of  sand,  moderately  compacted,  and  sub- 
tract its  weight  from  165.625  and  then  find  what  percent  the 
difference  in  weight  is  of  165.625.  For  example,  find  the  voids 
of  a quartz  sand  whose  weight  is  105  lbs.  per  cubic  foot. 

165.625  minus  105  ecpials  60.625.  Then  60.625  divided  by 

165.625  ecpials  36.57,  the  voids.  fifiie  heavy  sands  are 
low  in  voids,  and  light  sands  are  high  in  voids.  Where  exact 
results  are  desired,  it  becomes  necessary  for  the  operator  to 
determine  the  s])ecific  gravity  of  a sand  for  use  in  working  out 
the  weight  and  voids. 

Refractoriness. — Pure  (piartz  sand  stands  a high  degree 
of  heat  without  fusing.  It  is,  on  this  account,  classed 
as  a refractory  substance.  fi'lie  refraction  decreases  with 
the  ])resence  of  calcite,  alkalies,  and  iron  oxides.  1 he 
following  silicate  minerals  serve  also  to  increase  the 
fusibility,  and  in  the  order  named, — horneblende,  garnet, 


36 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


mica  if  in  fine  plates,  and  feldspar.  IMost  of  these  re- 
quire a high  degree  of  heat  to  fuse  them,  but  less  than  chem- 
ically pure  silica. 

Chemical  Composition. — Sands  vary  considerably  in  chemical 
composition.  Pure  quartz  sand,  which  is  not  an  absolute  reality 
in  nature,  is  silica  (Si  O2).  It  contains  46.6  percent  silicon  and 
53.33  percent  oxygen.  Feldspar,  mica,  hornblende,  and  other 
silicates,  when  present,  make  the  composition  more  complex  ad- 
ding silica,  alumina  (AI2O3).  potassium  oxide  (K2O),  sodium 
oxide  ( Xa20),  calcium  oxide  (Ca  O),  magnesium  oxide  C^Ig 
O)  and  iron  oxide  (Fe203).  Iron  oxide  is  found  in  the  silicates 
and  as  a stain  either  in  or  on  quartz  grains.  Clay  impurity  is 
essentially  a hydrated  silicate  of  alumina.  Limestone  fragments 
are  calcium  carbonate  (Ca  CO3).  Chemical  analyses  of  sand  are 
not  easily  made.  Approximate  analyses  in  which  only  the 
Si  O2,  AI2O3  and  iron  content  are  determined  take  little  time 
and  effort,  but  ultimate  analyses  which  have  more  value  occa- 
sion much  labor  and  expense. 

Conclusions  reached  in  this  paper  are  based  on  ultimate 
analyses,  too  few  of  which  have  been  made  to  warrant  a fuller 
discussion  of  the  chemical  nature  of  our  sands.  This  part  of 
the  research  should  be  continued.  Only  enough  data  are  at 
hand  to  warrant  certain  general  conclusions  concerning  the 
composition  of  the  leading  sand-bearing  formations.  When 
the  conditions  in  the  state  demand  a fuller  utilization  of  the 
sands  it  will  become  necessary  for  some  one  to  extend  these 
analyses.  However,  for  most  uses  now  in  vogue  it  makes  little 
difference  what  the  composition  is.  but  if  the  state  ever  manu- 
factures glass  it  will  then  be  necessary  to  know  accurately. 
The  chemical  work  of  this  paper  was  done  by  Mr.  George 
Borrowman.  IM.  A.,  Adjunct  Professor  of  Chemistry.  The  L^ni- 
versity  of  Nebraska.  The  method  fol'owed  by  IMr.  Borrowman 
is  described  by  him  as  follows:  ‘‘The  samples  were  first  dried  at 
100  degrees  centigrade.  About  two  grams  of  the  finely  pul- 
verized dried  material  were  then  fluxed  with  about  five  times 
its  weight  of  mixed  sodium  and  potassium  carbonates  and 
the  analysis  proceeded  with  as  in  the  analysis  of  a clay,  i.  e. 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION 


37 


the  silica  was  determined  by  dehydrating  the  acid  solution  of 
the  carbonate  fusions ; the  iron  and  aluminum  were  precipitated 
by  the  basic  acetate  method,  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid, 
half  the  solution  taken  for  determination  of  the  iron  by  potas- 
sium permanganate ; both  constituents  were  precipitated  by  am- 
monium hydroxide  in  the  other  half  and  weighed  as  oxides. 
The  lime  was  determined  by  precipitating  as  the  oxalate  and 
titrating  with  permanganate ; the  magnesia,  by  precipitating  as 
magnesium  ammonium  phosphate  and  weighing  as  the  pyro- 
phosphate. The  alkalies,  sodium  and  potassium,  were  es- 
timated by  the  indirect  method,  i.  e.  separating  them  as  the  pure 
chlorides  by  the  Lawrence  Smith  process  and  then  determining 
the  chlorine  by  silver  nitrate  solution.  From  these  data  the  al- 
kaline oxides  were  calculated.  Sulphur  trioxide,  carbon  diox- 
ide, organic  matter  and  manganese  oxide  were  not  determined.’’ 


38 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  SAXD  BEARING  FORMATIONS. 

This  chapter  treats  of  the  general  structure  of  Nebraska;  the 
origin,  stratigraphic  position  and  description  of  the  leading  sand 
producing  formations. 

General  Structure. — For  more  than  fifty  years  geologists 
have  studied  the  structure  of  Nebraska  and  adjacent  states. 
Much  of  this  investigation  has  been  carried  on  by  the  United 
States  Geo’ogical  Survey  in  co-operation  with  the  State  Geolog- 
ical Survey.  Though  the  survey  is  not  finished  in  Nebraska, 
enough  data  are  at  hand  to  warrant  a definition  of  the  structure: 
BeMw  the  mantle  rock  is  a bed  rock  composed  of  many  nearly 
horizontal  formations  lying  one  above  the  other.  The  exposed 
bed-rock  formations  range  from  Carboniferous  to  Tertiary  in 
age  and  consist  for  the  most  part  of  limestones,  chaTs,  shales, 
clays  and  sandstones.  The  oldest  rocks  exposed  come  to  the 
surface  in  the  southeastern  counties  and  are  overlaid  to  the 
west  by  a succession  of  newer  formations  (Figure  7). 


SAND  BEARING  FORMATION 


39 


LPROMie  PIERRE  ' NlOBRRRfl  pPRULE  GREENHORN  GRPNERQ5  OaHOTR  i PERMIRN  PENHSYLVRNIRH, 


40 


NEBRAS  :a  geological  SURVEY 


The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  formations  and  deposits 
of  the  state,  not  including  those  of  Pre-Pennsylvania  age. 


Quaternary 


[■Qune  sand 
J Loess 
I Alluvium 
[Glacial  Deposits 


Tertiary 


An  un-named  formation,  probably  of  Pliocene  age. 

Ogalalla  ; ^ Ogalalla  probably  is  Pliocene. The 

Arikaree  - Loup  Fork  Beds  - Gering  and  Arikaree  are  of 
Gering  \ ^ Miocene  age. 

Chadron  !’  River  Beds.  Oligocene  age. 


Cretaceous  < 


Laramie  Formation 
Pierre  Formation 
Niobrara  Formation 

^ Carlile 

Benton  Group  - Greenhorn 
i Graneros 
Dakota  Formation 
^Morrison  Formation 


Jurassic 
Trias  sic 


{ 


R“presented  by  reddish,  arenaceous  shales  and  gypsiferous  de- 
posits under  the  Western  counties.  Not  exposed  in  Nebraska. 


Permian  < 


"The  upper  formations  of  this  series  ar^  not  exposed  in  Nebras- 
ka. Probably  they  may  underlie  some  of  the  central  and 
western  counties. 

Fort  Riley 
Florence  Flint 
Matfield  Shales 
^Wreford  Formation 


Pennsyl- 

vanian 


{ 


Several  formations  consisting  of  limestones,  shales,  clays, 
some  sandstone  and  coal. 


The  principal  sand-bearing  formations  of  economic  impor- 
tance, .named  in  the  ..order  of  their  age.  are  the  Dakota, 
Arikaree,  Ogalalla,  the  un-named  Pliocene  sands,  the  Glacial 
and  Alluvial  deposits. 

Carboniferous  Rocks. — These,  represented  in  two  systems, 
extend  under  the  entire  state  and  outcrop  in  valleys  of  the 
southeastern  counties.  The  Pennsylvanian  system,  consisting 
of  nine  or  ten  limestone  and  shale  formations,  contains  a rela- 
tively small  quantity  of  sand  and  sandstone.  The  Permian  sys- 
tem overlies  the  Pennsyvlanian  rocks  and  outcrops  in  the  Big 
Blue  Valley  in  the  vicinity  of  W'ymore.  Blue  Springs,  Holmes- 
ville  and  Beatrice. 

Pennsylvanian  Sand . — This  occurs  in  sandstone  and  only  at 


SAND  BEARING  FORMATION 


41 


a few  places,  as  at  Peru,  and  south  of  Falls  City.  Such  rocks 
form  a low  bluff  or  escarp  along  the  river  and  railroad  just 
southeast  of  Peru.  Here  the  stone  is  massive,  friable,  and  light 
to  buff  in  color.  Its  sand  tests  as  follows:  color  light 

to  yellowish:  specific  gravity  2.64;  voids  42  per  cent; 

impurities — clay,  iron  stain  and  mica  flakes;  mineral  con- 
tent largely  quartz,  some  hematite,  calcite  and  mica  flakes ; 
grains  angular;  in  fineness,  practically  all  grains  pass  the  50- 
mesh  with  the  largest  amount  remaining  on  60-mesh.  About 
5 to  10  percent  passes  the  1 00-mesh. 

The  exposure  south  of  the  Big  Nemaha  River  at  Falls  City  is 
variab’e  in  structure  and  texture.  It  consists  for  the  most  part 
of  an  arenaceous  shale,  but  at  places  it  is  a sandstone  contain- 
ing numerous  rusty  iron  concretions  at  the  surface. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Pennsylvanian  sands  and 
sandstones  of  our  state  are  of  little  economic  importance  and 
that  they  do  not  seem  to  warrant  further  prospecting.  They 
are  too  fine  for  plaster  and  concrete,  and  not  adapted  for  glass 
making.  They  might  be  used  in  grading  other  sands  and  for 
bedding  cars.  A further  factor  should  not  be  overlooked  ; it  is 
that  the  stratigraphic  extent  of  the  sand,  both  horizontal  and 
vertical,  is  poorly  defined.  Horizontally  it  grades  into  either 
sha’e  or  limestone  within  short  distances. 

Triassic  and  Jurassic  Rocks. — These  “Red  Beds”  are  thought 
to  underlie  western  Nebraska  in  their  extension  between  the 
Black  Hills  and  exposures  along  the  Rocky  Mountain  front. 

Morrison  Formation. — fl'he  clays  and  shales  of  this  basal 
member  of  the  Cretaceous  are  not  ex])osed  in  tlie  state. 

The  Dakota  Formation. — This  member  of  the  Nebraska  sec- 
tion was  first  described  in  Dakota  (bounty, — hence  the  name. 
No  formation  is  better  known  to  our  citizens,  and  that  on  ac- 
count of  its  importance  as  a source  of  artesian  water,  l)rick 
clay,  sand  and  gravel. 

I'he  Dakota  rests  unconformably  on  an  uneven  surface  of 
Carboniferous  rocks  along  its  line  of  outcro])  in  Nebraska  and 
probably  conformably  on  the  Morrison  formation  under  the 
western  counties.  The  uneveness  of  the  Carboniferous  sur- 


42 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


face  upon  which  the  Dakota  lies  was  produced  bv  stream 
erosian  when  eastern  Nebraska  was  a land  surface.  It  was  a 
long  period  of  gradation  occupying  part  of  the  interval  between 
Permian  and  early  Cretaceous  times.  During  the  latter  part  of 
this  interval,  the  Jurassic  deposits  were  laid  down  in  a sea 
which  occupied  the  region  of  \\*yoming  and  western  Nebraska. 
Then  came  the  ^Morrison  and  Dakota  formations  as  fresh  water 
and  shallow  sea  accumulations. 

The  Dakota  is  for  the  most  part,  a tangential  deposit  made 
by  streams  a’ong  migrating  shore  lines.  Its  sediments  in  east- 
ern Nebraska  seem  to  have  been  carried  westward  by  rivers 
whose  load  was  gathered  in  Iowa  and  bordering  states.  The 
average  thickness  of  the  formation  is  about  300  ft.,  being  least 
along  the  line  of  outcrop  at  Ponca,  Tekamah.  Fremont,  Ash- 
land, South  Bend.  Lincoln.  Beatrice.  Fairbury,  and  Steele  and 
thicker  under  the  central  and  western  counties. 

The  Dakota  formation  consists  of  sandstones,  clays,  shales, 
sand,  gravel,  conglomerate  and  thin  beds  of  lignite.  At  places 
it  presents  three  phases  which  are:  i.  massive  sandstones  at 

the  base : 2.  shale  and  clays  with  thin  sandstones  near  the  mid- 
dle: and  3.  massive  and  thin  bedded  sandstones  at  the  top. 

These  are  hardly  constant  enough  in  position  across  the  state 
to  warrant  a division  of  the  formation  into  three  members. 

Approximately  one-half  of  the  formation  is  arenaceous,  con- 
sisting of  sandstone,  sand  and  gravel.  The  sandstone  is  mas- 
sive and  cross  bedded  at  places.  For  examp’e,  this  condition 
occurs  near  the  mouth  of  Salt  Creek  (Figure  8).  The  stone 
ranges  from  a loosely  cemented  form  to  a quartzite  with  silic- 
ious  cement.  At  places  it  is  concretionary,  containing  an  iron 
oxide  cement.  The  prevailing  color  of  the  sand  and  sandstone 
where  they  are  exposed  in  ledges,  varies  from  ocherous  yellow 
to  rusty  brown.  It  is  lighter  at  places,  being  nearly  white  where 
the  iron  stain  is  absent.  The  rock  contains  pyrites  of  iron 
which  weathers  readily  thus  giving  the  iron  rust. 

Sand  in  The  Dakota  Formation. — This  occurs  naturally  as 
such  and  is  produced  from  friable  sandstone  by  crushing.  The 
sand  is  light,  yellowish  or  brownish  in  color,  varying  with  the 


SAND  BEARING  FORMATION 


43 


Fig.  8 Outcrop  of  Dakota  San  Jstone  near  Mouth  of  Salt  Creek, 
Cass  County. 


amount  of  iron  stain.  It  contains  some  clay  ini])nrity,  a small 
percent  of  calcium  carbonate  as  a coating-  on  trains,  and  llakes 
of  mica,  ^^ellowisli  and  brownish  concretions,  one-eii^ditb  inch 
to  one-half  inch  in  diameter  are  found  in  some  samples.  'Fhese 
concretions  seem  to  result  from  the  oxidation  of  the  sul])hide 
of  iron.  'J'he  sand  is  (piite  uniform  in  g^rain  as  is  shown  bv  tests 
made  of  samples  collected  from  various  localities. 


.44 


NEBRASKA  GE0L03ICAL  SURVEY 


The  grains  are  angular  to  rounded  and  composed  very  largely 
of  quartz  coated  with  oxide  of  iron.  The  composition  of  a 
sample  collected  near  Lincoln  and  analyzed  by  Mr.  George 
Borrowman.  Instructor  in  the  Department  of  Chemistry,  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska,  is  as  follows: 


Silicon 

Si  O2 

95-7^ 

Iron  Oxide 

FecOs 

1.81 

Aluminum  Oxide 

AI2O3 

-49 

Calcium  Oxide 

Ca  0 

•25 

Magnesium  Oxide 

MgO 

.16 

Sodium  Oxide 

Xa20 

Potassium  Oxide 

K2O 

.01 

L'ndetermined 

1-45 

Total loo.OD 

The  largest  range  in  composition  of  dillerent  samples  is  in 
the  iron  oxide.  The  calcium  carbonate  also  varies  in  quantity,, 
but  its  amount  is  never  as  large  as  most  geologists  have 
thought. 

W e do  not  know  just  how  important  a place  this  sand  may 
assume  in  the  economy  of  the  state.  It  is  evident  from  the 
physical  analyses  that  it  is  not  well  suited  for  the  purposes  of 
construction.  Under  proper  treatment,  the  sand  would  pro- 
duce at  least  a low  grade  of  glass.  There  is  a large  supply  of 
this  material,  usually  in  accessible  places,  especially  in  the 
southern  part  of  Jefferson  County. 

Gravel  and  Pebble  Rock. — These  occur  locally  in  the  Dakota 
formation  ( Figure  9).  the  largest  deposits  being  lenticular  bod- 
ies in  the  vicinity  of  Louisville;  along  the  lower  Platte.  They 
have  been  described  as  channel  deposits,  and  apparently  there 
is  nothing  that  fully  refutes  this  supposition.  The  gravel 
bodies  grade  vertically  and  laterally  into  sandstone,  being  en- 
closed by  the  latter  except  where  they  rest  on  the  Carboniferous 
rocks  or  they  are  exposed  at  the  surface. 

It  is  now  known  that  the  gravel  was  derived  from  sedimen- 
tary and  not  from  granitoid  rocks  as  was  formerly  supposed. 
However,  much  of  it  has  come  from  primary  rocks  at  an  earlier 


SAND-BEARING  FORMATIONS 


45 


Fig.  9 Gravel  in  the  Dakota  Formation 


46 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


period.  The  gravel  has  a filler  of  sand,  and  at  places  the  whole 
mass  is  firmly  united  by  iron  oxide  into  what  is  popularly 
called  “Peanut  rock.”  The  gravel  grains  and  pebbles  are  com- 
posed of  durable  minerals  and  rocks,  such  as  flint,  chert,  free 
vitreous  quartz  and  quartzite,  free  quartz  predominating.  As 
a rule  the  coarse  and  fine  materials  are  mixed  indiscriminately. 
At  places,  they  are  banded  in  an  exposure  according  to  sizes. 

Benton  Formations*. — These  contain  no  arenaceous  deposits 
of  any  consequence.  The  lower  division,  the  Graneros  for- 
mation, overlying  the  Dakota,  carries  arenaceous  and  carbon- 
aceous shales  and  very  thin  layers  of  sandstone.  It  is  overlaid 
by  20  to  30  ft.  of  Greenhorn  limestones  and  shales.  This  lime 
stone  is  composed  very  largely  of  oyster-like  fossils.  The  up- 
per member  of  the  Benton  is  a thick  shale-like  division  known 
as  the  Garble  formation.  Thin  beds  in  it  are  arenaceous. 

Niobrara  Formation. — This  yields  no  sand.  It  is  chalk  rock 
lying  between  the  Carlisle  and  the  Pierre  shale.  The  thickness 
is  200  to  400  ft. 

Pierre  Shale. — The  Pierre  outcrops  extensively  in  the  Repub- 
lican Valley,  and  in  Cedar,  Knox,  Boyd,  Holt.  Dawes  and  Sioux 
uounties.  It  consists  of  dark,  bluish  and  grayish  shales  which, 
when  wet,  are  popularly  known  as  soapstone. 

Laramie  Formation. — The  outcrop  area  of  this  division  is 
Small  in  Nebraska.  It  is  in  Scotts  Bluff  County,  near  the  Wyo- 
ming line.  The  formation  carries  shales,  lignite,  and  sand- 
stones which  have  no  importance  in  sand  production. 

Tertiary  Formations. — These  lie  upconformably  on  a Cret- 
aceous floor  and  come  to  the  surface  in  the  central  and  western 
counties  (Figures  8 and  10).  The  system  contains  two  prin- 
cipal divisions, — the  White  River  Group  and  the  Loup  Fork 
Beds.  Darton  has  separated  these  into  six  formations  which, 
in  order  of  age,  are  the  Chadron,  Brule,  Gering.  Arikaree, 
Ogalalla  and  an  un-named  formation.  The  \\  hite  River  Group 
includes  the  Chadron  and  the  Brule,  both  of  Oligocene  age. 
The  Gering  and  Arikaree  of  the  Loup  Fork  are  Miocene  and 
the  two  other  formations  appear  to  be  of  Pliocene  age.  In 


SAND-BEARING  FORMATION 


47 


Figure  10. 


48 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


general,  the  White  River  beds  are  clayey  and  the  Loup  Fork, 
sandy  in  texture. 

The  Chadron  or  the  liasal  member  of  Nebraska’s  Tertiary 
has  a maximum  thickness  of  8o  or  90  ft.  It  outcrops  at  the  foot 
of  Pine  Ridge,  in  the  Niolirara  Valley  near  Valentine,  and  in  the 
North  Platte  Valley  close  to  the  WNoming  line.  Its  typical 
material  is  a light  greenish-gray  arenaceous  clay.  Coarse,  dark 
gray  sands,  representing  channel  deposits,  lie  at  the  base  of  the 
formation  and  at  different  higher  levels. 

The  Brule  Formation  overlies  the  Chadron  and  has  a thick- 
ness of  from  300  to  600  ft.  It  is  a pale  ])ink,  arenaceous  clay  con- 
taining irregularly  disposed  gravel  and  cong’omerate  beds.  The 
formation  underlies 'much  of  north  western  Nebraska.  It  out- 
crops'an  Lodge  Pole  Valley,  North  Platte  Vadey,  along  the 


Figure  11.  Sand  in  the  Gering  Formation 


SAND-BEARING  FORMATION 


49 


north  face  of  Pine  Ridge,  and  probably  in  the  Niobrara  Valley 
in  the  vicinity  of  Valentine. 

The  Gering  beds  lie  on  the  Brule  in  two  areas,  one  in  the 
vicinity  of  Gering,  Scotts  Bluff  Oounty;  and  the  other  in  Sioux 
and  Dawes  counties.  Its  thickness  varies,  the  maximum  being 
200  ft.  and  the  average  less  than  lOO  ft.  The  materials  have 
wide  range  in  texture ; they  are  fine  sands,  friable  sandstones 
(Figure  ii)  and  beds  of  conglomerate.  By  some,  the  Gering  is 
regarded  as  the  base  of  the  Arikaree  which  caps  the  High 
Plains  of  the  western  counties  north  of  the  Platte. 

The  Arikaree  is  400  ft.  thick  near  Scotts  Bluff  and  about  500 
ft.  thick  in  Sioux  and  Dawes  counties.  This  member  is  com- 
posed, for  the  most  part,  of  fine,  gray  sand  which  contains  beds 
of  clay,  volcanic  ash,  and  a series  of  old  conglomerate-filled 
channels  (Figure  12).  The  sand  is  usually  feebly  cemented  by 
calcium  carbonate. 

The  Ogalalla,  50  to  125  ft.  thick,  is  the  cap  rock  of  south 
western  Nebraska.  It  outcrops  along  the  Republican  from  near 
Franklin  westward  to  the  state  line,  and  in  the  Dodge  Pole,  and 
North  Platte  valleys.  The  most  noticeable  feature  of  the 
Ogalalla  is  its  “mortar  bed”  rock,  popularly  known  as  magnesia. 
It  forms  light  colored  bands  in  valleys,  noticeably  so  in  the  Re- 
publican Valley.  This  stone  is  sand  and  gravel  heavily-charged 
with  a calcareous  cement.  Local  areas  contain  a silicious 
binder  with  the  result  that  the  stone  at  such  places  is  a quart- 
zite, usually  greenish  in  color.  The  Ogalalla  contains  beds  of 
volcanic  ash,  layers  of  sand  and  large  de])osits  of  gravel  and 
pebbles,  'fhese  coarser  materials  are  of  Rocky  Mountain  ori- 
gin, having  been  carried  eastward  by  rivers.  Among  the 
minerals  which  com])ose  the  ])ebbles  are  free  (piartz  and  ortho- 
clase.  lAdds])ar  ])ebbles  are  a noticeable  feature  on  certain 
residual  slo])es  and  on  ])ebbly  benches.  Mica  and  hornblende 
are  found  in  the  granitoid  rocks,  (iranitcs.  Syenites,  Gneiss, 
hornblendic  schist,  rhyolite,  basalt,  and  (juartzite  ])ebbles  and 
cobbles  were  collected  from  the  residual  slopes.  'J'he  pebbles 
have  diversity  of  form,;  the  (piartz  jiebbles  are  rounded;  feld- 
spar has  fiat  faces  and  angular  fcjrms;  fragnients  of  hornblemle 


Figure  12.  A pebble  channel  in  the  Arikaree 


SaNd-be:aring  forma tioi^ 


5i 


schist  are  flattened ; and  basalt  fragments  are  irregular  with 
jagged  surfaces. 

The  Pliocene  Sand  and  Gravel  Plain . — Lying  beneath  dune 
sand,  loess,  and  at  places  under  glacial  deposits  of  the  central 
and  east-central  counties,  is  an  un-named  formation  which  con- 
sists of  vast  quantities  of  sand  interstratified  with  clay.  The 
formation  is  exposed  in  South  Dakota,  along  the  Missouri  in 
Knox  and  Cedar  counties  and  southward  across  Nebraska.  The 
plain  retains  its  form  and  position  in  some  of  the  uplands,  but 
has  been  removed  by  streams  along  the  valleys.  Its  east  and 
west  limits  have  not  been  definitely  determined  because  of  the 
over-lap  of  Quaternary  deposits.  However,  the  plain  extends 
westward  to  and  against  the  irregularly  eroded  edge  of  the 
Ogalalla  and  Arikaree  formations.  It  comes  to  the  surface  in 
Holt  County  and  at  points  in  Knox,  Cedar,  Wayne, 
Platte,  Webster  and  other  counties,  where  in  each  case  it  is  a 
sand  producer. 

Beds  of  coarse  sand  belonging  to  this  plain  outcrop  at  an 
e’evation  of  390  to  400  ft.  above  the  Missouri  River  in  Knox 
County,  where  Professor  James  E.  Todd  has  shown  their  re- 
lation to  the  overlying  glacial  materials.  Future  research  may 
prove  that  this  sand  ])lain  is  for  the  greater  part  of  early  Qua- 
ternary age  and  not  Pliocene. 

Tertiary  Sands  and  Gravels. — These  vary  greatly  in  ciualily 
in  the  different  formations  and  forms  of  (lei)osits.  y\s  a rule  the 
sand  is  dirty,  except  in  the  un-named  formation,  the  leading  nn- 
])urities  being  clay,  lime  carbonate  and  volcanic  ash.  In  some 
])laces  the  sand  is  clean,  but  this  is  the  exce])tion.  An- 
other feature  in  which  the  extremes  are  shown  is  in  fineness, 
hhne,  medium  and  coarse  sand  may  be  associated  with  pebldes. 
d'he  i)revalent  mineral  in  the  finer  sands  is  (juartz.  Feldspar  is 
a feature  in  the  coarser  grades  and  in  the  pebble  dej>osits. 
Most  of  the  d'ertiary  sand  is  too  fine  for  use  in  constructicm. 
d'he  coarser  materials,  however,  may  ])rove  to  be  of  importar.ee. 
Occuring  as  they  do  in  irregular  pockets  and  channels  and  un- 
der heavy  strip|)ing,  their  i)rosi)ccting  and  development  will 


52 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


always  have  a large  element  of  uncertainty  which  is  sure  to 
act  as  a drawback. 

Residual  and  out  wash  sands  and  gravels  coining  from  the  dis- 
integration of  Tertiary  formations  is  of  better  grade  and  more 
accessible.  It  should  supply  the  local  demands  and  trade. 

Glacial  Deposits. — These  accumulations  were  broughi  into 
Nebraska  from  both  the  north  and  west  during  glacial  times. 
Thus  far  it  has  not  been  conclusively  determined  just  how 
many  glacial  invasions  the  state  experienced.  It  is  deiinitely 
known,  however,  that  one  ice  sheet  reached  Nebraska  and  that 
there  may  have  been  two  or  even  three  glacial  invasions. 
Evidence  at  hand  indicates  that  the  state  has  one  principa-  till 
sheet,  the  Kansan,  and  a glacio-fluvial  sand  plain  which,  mav 
prove  to  be  of  Pre-Kansan  age.  It  is  thought  by  some  that  tl.e 
Iowan  and  A\hsconsin  invasions  reached  northeastern  Ne- 
braska. This,  however,  is  not  well  proved.  The  Kansan 
till  sheet  is  composed  of  bowlder  clay,  sand,  gravel,  cob- 
bles and  bowlders  (Figure  13).  The  clay  is  yellowish  and 
brownish  when  weathered,  otherwise  it  is  bluish.  It  is  • 
studded  with  bowlders,  some  of  them  being  of  large  size. 
The  clay  or  till  proper  is  not  distinctly  stratified.  Usually 
it  presents  the  structure  of  a typical  ground  marainic  de- 
posit. The  till  sheet,  usually  thin,  has  a maximum  thick- 
ness of  about  one  hundred  feet  in  the  western  part  of 
Lancaster  County.  No  one  has  determined  just  how  far  west 
the  ice  sheet  extended  in  Nebraska.  A line  joining  the 
eastern  part  of  Boyd  County,  York,  Geneva,  and  Hebron  repre- 
sents the  exposed  western  boundary  of  the  till  as  it  is  now 
known  -(Figure  10). 

The  Till  Plain  Sands. — These  occur  in  three  forms  or  condi- 
tions, i.  e.  as  sand  bodies,  sand  beds  and  sand  plains,  generally 
known  by  the  names,  sand  trains  or  gravel  trains.  The  sand 
bodies  occupy  pockets  in  the  bowlder  clay  (Figure  14).  Their 
origin  is  not  fully  understood  by  the  writer.  The  pockets  or 
bodies  vary  from  10  or  20  ft.  to  100  ft.  or  more  in  diameter.  This 
sand  usually  is  stratified  and  sometimes  cross  bedded,  evincing 
its  water  concentration.  It  is  light  to  rusty  in  color  and  clean 
to  dirty;  it  varies  from  fine  to  coarse  and  from  subcircular  to 


SAND-BEARING  FORMATION 


53 


Figure  13.  Bowlders  and  bowlder  clay  exposed  in  railroad  cut  twelve 
miles  west  of  Lincoln. 

angular  in  size  and  form  of  grain.  The  leading  impurities  are 
rock  hour  and  the  yellow  oxide  of  iron.  Vitreous  (juartz  is  the 
prevailing  mineral  with  feldspar,  hematite,  magnetite  and  horn- 
hlende  as  minor  constituents. 

The  sand  beds  or  trains  are  larger  than  the  sand  bodies, 
d'hey  have  not  been  fully  investigated.  A deposit  of  this  kind 
is  exposed  at  Burnham,  near  Lincoln.  The  sand  at  this  place 
is  coarse  and  dirty.  Further  study  may  prove  that  the  glacial 
sand  and  gravel  de])osits  at  Martinshurg,  'rekamah,  A\'ahoo,  and 
Fairhiiry  are  ex])osed  ]>arts  of  large  valley  trains,  d'hey  a])pear 
to  represent  glacial  drainage  ways,  filled  with  glacial  wash. 
^J'heir  exact  structural  relation  to  other  glacial  (lei)osits  has  not 
been  conclusively  determined. 

A small  sand  ])lain  lying  between  brownish  and  bluish  bowl- 
der clay  is  exposed  in  the  deep  railroad  cuts  between  Bleasanl- 
dale  and  Milford.  Its  extent  has  not  been  determined. 

From  the  above  description  it  should  he  ap])arent  that  the 
till  plain  sands  are  very  irregularly  distributed. 


54 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


The  Glacio-Fluvial  Sand  Plain. — This  sheet  of  sand  and 
gravel  is  lOO  ft.  thick  at  some  places.  It  lies  below  at  least  a 
part  of  the  till  plain  and  extends  westward  under  the  loess  an 
unknown  distance.  The  arenaceous  materials  are  plainly 
stratified.  Bowlders  occur  in  the  sand  near  the  contact  with 
the  till  plain.  The  origin  of  the  sand  plain  materials  is  not  well 
understood.  Geologists  believe,  however,  that  they  are  in  part 
river  deposits  of  western  origin  and  in  part  glacial  materials  of 
northern  origin.  The  bowlders  aiid  cobbles  were,  without 
much  doubt,  carried  to  their  position  from  the  north.  Much 
of  the  sand  and  gravel  were  brought  from  the  west  by  streams 
during  glacial  times.  Just  what  caused  these  streams  to  drop 


Fig-.  14.  Sand  pocket  in  Kansan  Till  near  Pleasant  Dale,  Nebraska. 

their  heavy  load  in  eastern  and  central  Nebraska  is  not  known. 
Neither  is  the  relation  between  these  sand  ])lain  materials  and 
certain  Pliocene  sands  definitely  understood.  We  are  quite  con- 
vinced, however,  that  the  sands  which  contain  glacial  bowlders 
have  a wider  distribution  in  Nebraska  than  is  usually  thought, 
and  that  they  have  some  relation  to  the  Pliocene  sands.  I'hey 
appear  to  be  older  than  the  Kansan  Till.  Formerly  the  author 


SAND-BEARING  FORMATION 


55 


accounted  for  the  presence  of  bowlders  in  this  sand  and  gravel, 
provisionally,  by  supposing  that  they  had  been  carried  to  their 
position  during  the  Kansan  ice  invasion  and  incorporated  with 
river  wash  which  came  from  the  west  at  that  time.  It  was 
thought  that  the  presence  of  ice  dams  in  valleys  of  east-Howing 
streams  might  have  caused  these  rivers  to  aggrade  the  valleys 
with  gravel  and  sand  and  to  overflow  southward  around  the 
west  edge  of  the  ice  sheet.  This  condition  would  have  caused 
the  streams  to  mix  their  sand  with  glacial  materials  from  the 
northern  territory  and  to  cover  the  region  west  of  the  glacier 
with  materials  of  western  origin.  At  that  time  the  author  did 
not  know  conclusively  that  the  sand  plain  extended  eastward 
under  the  till  plain. 

Tlie  next  supjiosition  was  that  the  sand  was  aggrade(^.  as 
outwash  ahead  of  the  glacier.  According  to  this  notion,  the 
heavy  frontal  wash  caused  the  east-llowing  rivers  to  aggrade 
first  their  valleys  and  then  the  general  surface.  Such  a process 
might  have  been  enacted  in  either  the  Kansan  or  Pre-Kansati 
time.  The  concejition  that  the  sand  plain  is  glacial  outwash 
fai's  to  have  the  full  significance  which  it  otherwise  demands 
from  the  fact  that  the  sand  phiin  rises  rapid'y  to  the  westward 
from  the  edge  of  the  tid  plain.  If  it  were  not  for  this  fact, 


Fi^.  15.  Glacial  sand  ridf^e  near  Fairbury. 


56 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


granting  that  the  surface  slopes  at  that  time  were  about  as  they 
are  now,  we  might  assume  that  the  sand  plain  was  formed 
ahead  of  the  ice  and  that  the  till  proper  came  later,  when  the 
ice  over-rode  the  sand  plain.  Notwithstanding  the  strong  ob- 
jection to  this  view,  we  may  say  that  it  is  not  an  improbable  ex- 
])hination  of  the  conditions. 

The  Pre-Kansan  or  Aftonian  sheet  of  Iowa  and  the  Glacio- 
fluvial  plain  of  Neliraska  are  similar  in  some  respects.  Each 
contains  sand,  gravel  and  erratics.  They  have  similar  positions 
with  respect  to  the  Kansan  till  sheet.  What  appear  to  be 
disconnected  areas  of  the  glacio-fluvial  sand  plain  occur  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Nel)raska  and  hence  not  far  from  typical  ex- 
posures of  the  Pre-Kansan  of  Iowa.  'Jdie  facts  warrant  the 
'statement  that  th.e  sand  jilain  of  Nebraska  may  be  of  Pre- 
Kansan  age.  Old  soil  lines  if  found  between  the  till  and  glacio- 
fluvial  sands,  would  be  regarded  as  more  conclusive  evidence 
of  the  age  of  the  latter.  If  tliis  sand  plain  proves  to  be  iden- 
tical with  and  a part  of  the  Aftonian  sheet  of  Iowa,  Nebraska 
has  two  drift  sheets. 

Glacio-fluvial  Sands. — The  proliable  origin  of  these  has  been 
described.  Such  sands  are  exposed  at  many  places  along*  the 
Big  Blue  and  Little  Blue  valleys,  as  at  Fairbury  (Figure  15), 
DeWitte  (Figure  16),  and  Ulysses.  They  underlie  a large 
part  of  the  Loess  plains  as  has  been  determined  by  well  records 
and  from  valley  exposures. 

The  quality  of  sand  is  somewhat  variabT  and  the  quantity 
large.  A given  pit  may  contain  beds  of  coarse  and  fine  and  of 
clean  and  dirty  sand.  Quartz  and  feldspar  are  the  leading 
minerals.  An  average  sample  when  sifted  is  retained  in  part 
on  every  sieve  from  No.  10  to  No.  100.  Samples  from  gravelly 
layers  are  retained  mostly  on  mesh  to.  A further  discussion 
of  the  properties  of  glacio-fluvial  sands  is  given  at  other  places 
in  this  report. 

Cobbles  and  Bowlders. — These  are  a feature  in  the  glaciated 
portions  of  Nebraska.  They  occur  both  in  and  on  the  till,  and 
also  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  glacio-fluvial  plain.  It  is  evident 


SAN1>‘BEARING  FORMATION 


57 


Fi^'.  16.  Glacio-flavial  sand  exposed  two  miles  northwest  ot  DeWitt. 

that  most  if  not  ail  of  tliese‘ coarse  materiahs  are  of  northern 
origin.  'I'hey  range  in  size  from  small  cobbles  to  bowlders, 
five,  ten,  fifteen  and  even  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  d'heir  rock 
composition  is  as  follows: 

1.  Sioux  Quartzite,  d'his  is  found  in  at  ^east  three  co'ors, 
])ink,  ])nr])’ish  red  and  brownish  red.  It  constitutes  fn'lv 
half  of  the  state’s  glacial  bowlders. 

2.  (ii'anite.  d here  are  se\'eral  coarse  textured  forms  of 
granite,  of  reddish,  gray  and  dark  colors. 

3.  Syenites.  A few  kinds. 

4.  (bieiss.  Several  forms. 

5. ^  Mica  and  hond)lende  schists. 

6.  (Greenstone. 

7.  dVa])  Rock. 

(S.  lyimestones  and  Sandstones  of  Rre-carbouiferous  age. 

9.  Ivocal  rocks, — as  ( Greer.horn  limestone,  Dakota  sandstone, 
and  Pennsylvanian  limestones  and  Hints. 


58 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Comparison  of  Tertiary  and  Glacio-fluvial  Sands. — Only 
the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  Tertiary  are  considered  in  this 
connection.  The  first  noticeable  point  of  comparison  is 
that  the  prevailing  minerals  in  each  are  quartz  and  feldspar. 
Each  sand  shows  these  as  free  minerals  which  have  been  formed 
from  granitoid  rocks  in  the  Rocky  ^lountains.  The  feldspar  in 
both  seems  to  decrease  in  amount  from  west  to  east : but  this 
has  not  been  proved  conclusively.  In  each  there  is  relatively 
more  quartz  in  the  finer  sand,  and  more  feldspar  in  the  coarse 
sand  or  gravel.  The  cleanness  in  each  kind  is  due  in  part  to  the 
method  of  origin,  but  mostly  to  conditions  brought  about  sub- 
sequent to  the  deposition  of  the  beds.  Chemically  the  sands 
are  similar  with  the  possible  exception  that  more  calcium  and 
potassium  oxides  are  found  in  the  Tertiary.  Iron  stain  is  more 
prevalent  in  the  glacial  deposits.  It  would  seem  that  we  are 
warranted  in  concluding  that  much  of  the  glacio-fiuvial  sand  is 
Tertiary  material  which  was  worked  over  during  glacial  times 
and  that  the  primary  source  of  each  was  about  the  same  except 
that  the  former  received  some  of  its  materials  from  the  north. 
The  glacio-fluvial  and  Pliocene  sands  are  so  much  alike  at 
places  as  to  make  it  nearly  impossible  for  the  geologist  to  distin- 
guish between  them.  In  the  absence  of  fossils,  and  strati- 
graphic distinctions,  the  only  remaining  evidence  of  value  is  the 
presence  or  absence  of  bowlders  and  other  materials  of  northern 
origin.  From  an  economic  standpoint  it  is  not  very  necessary 
that  the  two  classes  of  sand  should  be  distinguished  since  they 
are  so  similar  in  kind. 

The  Loess. — This  is  the  fine  grained,  massive,  buff-colored 
subsoil  of  about  haT  of  the  state.  (Figure  lo)  It  is  highly  are- 
naceous, containing  fine  sand  and  a relatively  large  proportion 
of  silt.  The  amount  of  sand  in  the  loess  increases  with  depth 
westward  across  the  Loess  Region.  Locally  the  loess  is  quite 
sandy  near  its  base.  At  some  places  it  is  separable  into  bluish 
and  yellowish  divisions.  The  loess  is  for  the  most  part  a wind 
deposit. 

Alluvium. — This  is  of  stream  construction  usually  in  valley- 
bottoms.  In  Nebraska  it  consists  largely  of  sand  and  gravel 
jjiterstratified  with  thin  beds  of  clay.  The  story  of  the  origin 


SAND-BEARING  FORMATION 


59 


of  alluvial  deposits  is  an  interesting  one,  but  need  not  be  recited 
in  this  connection.  That  rivers  both  make  and  fill  valleys  de- 
pending upon  the  conditions  under  which  they  work,  is  gener- 
aky  understood.  It  will  suffice  to  say  that  most  of  Nebraska’s 
larger  rivers,  have,  within  recent  times,  built  thick  alluvial 
deposits.  The  alluvia  of  the  Platte,  Missouri,  Niobrara,  Re- 
publican and  Blue  rivers  range  from  25  to  200  ft.  in  thickness. 

The  alluvial  formation  is  tl  e source  of  a large  part  of  our 
sand  production.  It  is  more  fully  described  in  Chajiter  IV. 

Dune  Sand. — This,  the  prevailing  surface  formation  of  the 
Sand  Hill  Region,  has  wide  range  in  the  state  (Figure  10), 
covering  about  18,000  S(|uare  miles.  Notwithstanding  its  large 
areal  distribution,  there  is  less  of  the  formation  than  most  geol- 
ogists have  supposed.  At  places  it  forms  only  a thin  mantle 
above  water-laid  sands.  The  dune  sands  (Figure  17)  are  wind 
modifications  of  the  Arikaree,  Pliocene,  and  alluvial  deposits. 
They  have  little  importance  as  materials  of  construction.  The 
color  is  gray  and  the  mineral  content  principally  quartz. 


Fig.  J7,  Pimesand,  Cherry  county.  Photo  by  R.  A.  Emerson. 


60 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


CHAPTER  III  . 

METHODS  OF  PRODUCTIOX  AND  EXTENT  OF 

TRADE. 


In  this  chapter  consideration  is  given  to  1)oth  sand  and  graveh 
but  it  has  ] een  deemed  advisable  to  give  more  space  to  the 
former.  In  a broad  way,  the  winning  of  any 'mineral  material 
such  as  stone,  c’ay  or  sand  from  the  surface  of  the  land' or  from 
underground  is  called  mining.  A more  restricted  usage  of  the 
term  is  that  in  wh.ich  it  stands  onA'  for  the  winning  of  coal  and 
meta'uferous  materiahs.  The  sand  of  trade  is  a mineral  pro- 
duct and  the  act  of  producing  it  by  the  different  methods 
employed  is  now  very  generally  called  mining. 

Sources  of  Sand. — It  is  obtained  from  sand  bars  and  open- 
ings called  lianks  and  ])its ; these  terms  have  a loose  meaning, 
with  no  technical  distinction.  Any  sul)-circular  opening  from 
which  sand  is  secured  whether  in  a bar  or  elsewhere  is  generally 
known  as  a sandpit.  The  dredges  operate  in  water-filled  pits, 
^hence  it  is  not  necessary  to  distinguish  between  dredge-pits 
and  other  forms  of  openings.  The  term  “sand  bank,”  according 
to  popn’ar  usage  denotes  a place  of  sand  production  along  a 
bank  or  bluff.  There  seems  to  lie  no  valid  distinction  between 
pit  and  bank  opening. 

.METHODS  OF  MIXING. 

The  methods  employed  are  simple  and  most  of  the  production 
is  from  open  pits.  As  a rule  the  method  employed  at  a place 
is  controlled  by  the  conditions  under  which  the  sand  occurs. 
The  structure,  stri])ping,  and  transportation  facilities  inflnence 
in  large  measure  the  extent  of  mining.  The  presence  of  water 
in  alluvial  sands  acts  as  a check  on  some  methods  of  operation. 


METHODS  OF  MINING 


61 


Another  factor  shoiihl  not  lie  overlooked:  it  is  the  sand 

trade.  A period  of  exteifsive  bnihling-  causes  an  increase  of 
production,  and  thereby  calls  for  improvement  in  the 
methods  of  mining. 

Simple  Loading  and  Hauling. — This  method  prevail  in  re- 
gions where  sand  is  worked  only  locally  or  where  it  is  so 
plentiful  as  to  have  no  monetary  value.  People  from  the  farm 
and  town  drive  to  a creek  bed,  sand  draw,  or  a small  pit,  which 
may  be  the  common  source  of  supply  for  the  neighborhood, 
and  secure  the  sand  by  shoveling  it  into  wagons.  If  the  sand 
occurs  in  a pTce  not  easily  reached  with  teams,  it  is  carried  to 
the  wagons  in  buckets.  In  some  places  it  is  handled  twice  in 
loading,  i.  e.  first  shovelled  to  a place  accessible  by  team  and 
then  into  the  wagon.  Under  ordinary  conditions  it  does  not 
take  long  to  load  a ton  or  a ton  and  a half  of  sand.  The  load  is 
hauled  a short  or  a long  distance  as  the  case  may  demand  and 
scooped  out  onto  the  sand  pile  where  it  remains  until  used. 

Loading  at  Local  Use  Pits. — These  pits  are  widely  distrib- 
uted in  the  state.  Most  of  them  are  located  along  valley-sides 
and  are  known  as  sand  banks  or  as  sand  pits.  Usually,  the  sand 


Fij^.  18.  Sandpit  near  Carahridg-e. 


62 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


at  such  places  lies  near  the  surface  and  requires  very  little  strip- 
ping of  soil  and  subsoil  preparatory  to  mining.  As  a rule  the 
stripping  thickens  in  the  slope  above  an  opening,  and  on  that  ac- 
count the  direction  of  working  is  parallel  with  that  of  the  valley, 
at  most  places.  This  requires  the  minimum  of  expense  in 
production,  but  limits  the  size  of  pits. 

]\Iaterials  overlying  the  sand  are  removed  with  plow  and 
scraper.  Wagons  are  driven  into  the  pits  and  the  drivers  do 
the  loading  by  hand,  selecting  the  quality  of  material  desired 
(Figure  i8). 

Tunneling. — Sand  is  mined  by  tunneling  at  some  locations, 
one  of  which  is  near  Falls  City  where  glacial  sands  are  exposed 
in  deep  ravines  south  of  the  big  Nemaha  River.  Here  the 
sand  is  overlaid  with  bowlder  clay  and  loess  which  are  too  thick 
to  be  removed  by  the  stripping  process. 

The  tunnels  cave  in  after  heavy  rains  and  are  at  no  time 
perfectly  safe  places  in  which  to  work ; the  cost  of  this  form  of 
mining  is  too  great  for  profitable  production.  Tunneling  is 
more  successfully  employed  in  gravel  mining  at  the  Curom 
Gravel  Pit  (Figure  59). 


Fig.  19.  Hauling  and  loading  gravel,  Cedar  Creek. 


METHOD  OF  MINING 


63 


Shoveling  onto  Cars. — The  railroads  often  run  short  spurs 
to  sand  pits  along  their  lines.  The  loading  is  done  almost  en- 
tirely by  hand  at  many  of  these  places.  Though  this  method  is 
slow,  large  pits  have  been  formed  in  this  way  at  Tekamah,  Kes- 
terson,  WTstern,  Atkinson,  and  several  other  points.  At  times 
the  hand-shoveling  is  done  by  section  crews,  but,  when  a large 
production  is  needed,  it  is  done  by  larger  forces  of  men.  This 
production  is  handled  very  largely  for  rairoad  use;  but  a part 
of  it  is  for  other  purposes.  In  some  cases  the  sand  or  gravel 
is  hauled  to  railroads  by  teams,  and  there  shoveled  onto  cars 
for  shipment  (Figure  19). 

Loading  with  Team  and  Scraper. — This  method  is  employed 
at  most  dredging  stations.  ( Figure  36)  and  also  at  railroad  pits. 
Both  the  slusher,  or  small  scraper,  and  the  wheel  scraper  are 
used.  The  sand  is  drawn  onto  a bridge-like  structure  which 
extends  over  the  loading  track  or  switch.  The  car  to  be  loaded 
is  pushed  or  drawn  under  the  bridge  which  has  a small  opening 
(the  trap)  in  its  central  portion  through  which  the  scraper- 


Fig.  20.  Sand  pumpinj^,  Meadow 


64 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


load  is  dumped.  By  moving  the  car  the  load  is  properly 
adjusted  without  much  shoveling.  This  is  cheap  mining  since 
it  does  not  demand  much  outlay  for  loading  machinery.  The 
method  gives  an  opportunity  to  select  coarse  or  fine  material, 
but  it  cannot  be  employed  where  the  sand  lies  below  the  water 
table. 

Bucket  Elevators  1 — These  should  be  more  generally  used. 
They  work  well,  where  the  lift  is  not  great,  and  save  labor. 
The  only  conveyors  of  this  kind  now  operating  in  the 
state  are  at  Brickton  six  miles  south  of  Hastings,  and  at 
Wahoo.  At  the  first  named  place  the  sand  is  moved  to  the 
conveyor  by  team  and  scraper.  At  A'ahoo  it  is  hauled  from- 
a nearby  pit  in  wagons  and  wheel  scrapers. 

Sand  Pumping. — This  method  is  employed  at  two  peaces  in 
the  state  in  loading  river  sand.  The  water-fihed  sand  is 
pumped  from  the  river  (Figure  20)  through  pipes  either  to  a 
large  storage  basin  or  to  cars.  The  cost  of  machinery  is  small 
and  the  production  relatively  large  for  the  outlay.  However, 
sand  pumping  from  the  Platte  is  not  successful  because  of  a lack 
of  constancy  in  the  quality  of  the  sand  produced.  The  river 
has  too  strong  a tendency  to  fill  an  opening  in  its  bed  with  fine 
sediment,  known  to  trade  as  quick  sand.  Otherwise,  coarse 
gravel  might  be  pumped  from  the  deeper  levels  of  the  river  bed 
making  this  method  of  production  desirabT  and  profitable. 

Boat  Dredging. — Several  years  ago  a boat  dredge  was  oper- 
ated at  Cedar  Creek  (Figure  49)  by  Mr.  Hugh  Murphy.  It 
proved  to  be  the  fastest  method  of  mining  yet  empMyed  in  the 
state,  a car  being  loaded  in  about  ten  minutes.  Notwithstand- 
ing this  fact  there  are  a few  drawbacks  to  this  method.  The 
railroad  spur  must  of  necessity  be  placed  dose  to  the  lake  and 
the  dredge.  Water  running  from  the  loaded  cars  washes  the 
grade,  causing  the  track  to  slide  into  the  lake  or  ])it.  Another 
hindrance  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it  is  not  possible  to  dredge 
as  deep  as  is  necessary  to  secure  coarse  sand.  However,  in 
spite  of  these  obstacles  there  are  points  in  favor  of  the  boat 
dredge  and  there  is  talk  of  again  installing  one  of  them  on  the 
Platte. 


Method  of  minting 


65 


The  Steam  Shovel. — This  method  of  loading  has  been  em- 
ployed at  times  in  the  state  but  only  for  short  periods  when 
railroads  have  found  it  necessary  to  secure  large  amounts  of 
sand  for  ballast  and  surfacing  track.  The  largest  production  of 
this  kind  was  handled  by  the  Great  Northern  Railroad  during 
the  year  1906. 

The  Clam  Dredge. — There  are  twelve  dredging  stations  in 
Nebraska  (Figure  21).  The  equipment  and  parts  of  such  a 
jdant  are  the  following: 

1.  Railroad  spur  or  switch. 

2.  Engine  and  engine  house. 

3.  Towers  and  anchors. 

4.  Double  cable. 

5.  Carrier  and  block. 

6.  Clam  dredge. 

7.  Draw  cable. 

8.  Scrapers,  shovels,  etc.  for  stripping  and  loading. 


66 


NEBRASKA  GEOLCX^ICAL  SURVEY 


1 Sand  Tjouisville,  formerly  owned  by  S.  II.  Atwood  Company. 


METHOD  OE  MINING 


6^ 


The  plants  operate  along  the  lower  Platte,  producing  from 
sandy  alluvium  where  the  stripping  is  thin  and  the  water  table 
near  the  surface.  They  are  located  on  railroad  switches  which 
extend  to  accessible  sand  ground  near  towns.  The  cost  of  a 
p^ant,  not  including  the  switch,  is  about  $3,000.00. 

The  problem  of  installing  a dredge  is  to  secure  a place  with 
a large  amount  of  desirable  sand,  favorably  situated  with  re- 
spect  to  transportation  facilities  and  markets;  and  to  anchor  a 
movable  tramway  which  will  carry  heavy  loads.  The  double 
cabT  or  tramway  has  a length  from  anchor  to  anchor  of  300  to 
350  ft.  It  is  ij/2  or  in.  in  diameter  and  firmly  attached  at 
each  end  to  trees  or  to  a “dead  man”  (Figures  22  and  23)  which 
is  made  by  depositing  several  tons  of  stone  on  a firm  platform, 
d'he  double  cable  is  elevated  on  two  towers,  the  taller  one,  near 
the  switch,  being  30  or  35  ft.  high.  The  towers  are  180  to  250  ft. 
apart. 

The  clam  jiroper  (Figures  24  and  25)  weighing  about  3,000 
])ounds,  is  constructed  of  heavy  5^in.  crucible  steel.  Its  halves 
or  clams  are  hinged  tb  a steel  bar  three  inches  in  diameter,  and 
attached  to  the  clam-head  l)y  heavy  chains  and  levers.  The 
c’am-head  or  block-head,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  weighs  500 
jiounds.  It  contains  heavy  jndleys  through  which  the  draw 
cal)le  ')4in.  in  diameter,  ]>asses.  'I'he  weight  of  the  dredge,  block- 
head and  sand  are  sujiported  by  a carrier  which  runs  on  the 
double  cable.  'The  carrier  weighs  about  1,500  jiounds. 

W hen  operating,  the  dredge,  block-head,  and  carrier  run  out 
on  the  double  cable  to  the  tri])-block  by  grax'ity.  Mere  the 
carrier  is  held  by  a trigger  and  the  open  clam  and  the  block- 
head descend  to  the  water  and  sand.  'I'he  block-head  strikes 
and  catches  the  hinge-bar  and  as  the  (Iredge  st.arts  to  rise  the 
c’am  shells  close  in  on  the  sand  scoo])ing  up  a load.  'Phe 
dredge  ascends  to  the  carrier;  a vertical  bar  strikes  the  tri]>  and 
the  heavy  load  is  drawn  in  on  the  double  cable  to  the  tower 
where  it  is  automatically  dumped  into  the  car.  Wdiile  working 
at  an  average  rate  the  dreclge  makes  a trip  in  about  eighty 
seconds,  varying  with  the  distance  and  depth.  When  rushed 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fig.  22.  The  Anchor  and  Stiff-knee,  or  Lower  Tower. 


Fig.  23  Stiff-knee  and  Anchor  at  the  large  Lyman  dredge,  Meadow. 


PRODUCTION  AND  TRADE 


()9 

the  rate  is  sixty  seconds  or  less.  The  sand  carried  each  trip 
weighs  from  2000  to  4000  pounds.  From  8 to  15  cars  of  sand, 
averaging  40  tons  each  are  loaded  in  this  way  in  8 to  10  hours. 

Dredging  extends  to  depths  of  30  to  80  ft.  As  the  sand  is  re- 
moved a lake  is  formed  in  which  the  water  remains  at  about  the 
same  level  as  that  in  the  river.  d'he  lake  is  enlarged  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  dredging  progresses,  the  tramway  being 
moved  a distance  of  50  or  60  ft.  when  the  sand  has  been  dredged 
ont  to  a desired  de])th.  The  lakes  made  in  this  way  are 
utilized  for  lish  culture,  boating,  swimming,  and  the  i)rodiiction 
of  ice. 

Clam  dredging  has  both  advantages  and  limitations.  Mining 
l)y  it  is  relatively  chea]),  and  it  enables  the  ])rodncer  to  obtain 
coarse  sand  from  be’ow  the  water  table.  Rainy  weather  offers 
very  little  hindrance,  d'he  greatest  drawback  is  found  in  the 
inabi.ity  to  obtain  sand  of  different  degrees  of  fineness  from  a 
pit.  That  is  to  say  it  is  impossible  to  load  either  coarse  or 
hue  sand  at  a dredge  without  great  inconvenience.  The  coarse 
and  the  fine  are  rim  together  as  commercial  sand.  The 
dredges  are  operated  9 to  10  months  of  the  year,  in  some  cases 
longer.  The  shut-down  comes  during  cold  weather  when  the 
water-soaked  sand  freezes  in  cars,  making  it  very  difficult  to 
unload  them. 

PRODUC'riON  AND  'I'kADlC 

It  is  encouraging  to  note  that  the  volume  of  sand  production 
in  Nebraska  is  steadily  increasing,  d'his  increase  in  the  trade 
has  jirogressed  so  ra])idly  that  many  jirodncers  and  dealers  find 
it  difficult  to  snp])ly  the  trade. 

Sand  and  gravel  are  sold  by  coal  and  lumber  dealers  in  the 
small  towns  with  other  materials  of  construction.  I'liese  mer- 
chants advertise  their  lime,  cement,  coal,  and  sand.  'I'he  trade 
is  sjiecializing  in  Omaha,  ffincoln,  Iff'emont,  Beatrice,  Ilastings, 
Nebraska  City,  and  other  leading  cities.  Platte  sand  is  now 
shi])])ed  to  many  ])laces  in  the  state  and  to  jioints  in  Iowa, 
Kansas  and  Missouri. 


70 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fig.  24.  Close  view  of  the  State’s  largest  clam  dredge. 


PRODUCTION  AND  TRADE 


71 


Fi^.  25.  An  unusual  form  of  Clam  dredge, 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Production  for  Local  Use. — It  has  not  been  possible  for  the 
writer  to  obtain  full  data  respecting  the  amount  of  this  produc- 
tion. By  compiling  the  reports  obtained  from  various  coun- 
ties the  number  of  local  use  pits  is  estimated  at  between  800 
and  1000.  These  supply  varying  quantities  of  sand,  ranging 
from  a few  loads  a year  to  as  high  as  10  and  12  wagon  loads  or 
more  a day.  As  an  estimate  I would  place  the  annual  pro- 
duction of  the  state  for  local  use  at  400,000  yards.  This  sand 
is  worth  very  little  at  the  pits  but  prices  range  from  50c.  to 
$r.oo  a yard  on  the  market.  The  sand  mined  in  the  state  for 
local  use  is  widely  distributed  and  much  more  important  than 
is  generally  known. 

Production  for  Shipment. — With  the  recent  industrial  de- 
velopment there  has  come  a demand  for  the  best  grades  of 
sand,  a demand  which  with  the  improved  facilities  for  transpor- 
tation has  localized  production.  The  result  is  that  sand  is  now 
mined  and  shipped  from  the  leading  producing  centers  to  the 
towns  and  cities.  Large  quantities  of  shipped  sand  are  hauled 
from  these  places  to  the  country.  The  railroads  and  cities 
are  the  largest  consumers. 

There  are  about  40  sand  shipping  stations  in  the  state,  the 
largest  of  which  are  the  Platte  dredges.  The  total  production 
for  shipment  last  year  was  800,000  cubic  yards  of  which  over 
500,000  came 'from  the  clam  dredges.  The  value  of  the  pro- 
duct loaded  at  the  pits  and  dredges  varies  from  7c.  to  20c.  a 
yard.  The  sand  is  delivered  to  consumers  at  about  one  dollar 
a yard. 

Total  Production  and  Its  Value. — The  amount  of  production 
for  last  year  was  about  1,200,000  cubic  yards.  This  is  sufficient 
to  load  40,000  cars,  or  to  make  a train  over  300  miles  long.  The 
market  value  of  this  production  was  about  $1,000,000. 

The  production  during  the  current  year  has  been  greatly 
augmented,  the  increase  being  used  for  ballast  and  for  building. 

Supply  and  Demand. — The  amount  of  sand  in  the  state  is 
both  increasing  and  decreasing.  There  are  places  where  the 
Platte  River  is  building  up  its  bed  with  sand  of  Rocky  Moun- 


PRODUCTION  AND  TRADE 


73 


2H.  Enoine  sand  in  storao’e,  C.  B,  A:  Q.  railroad,  Lincoln. 


74 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


tain  origin ; yet  it  is  carrying  sand  from  the  state  at  the  same 
time.  Evidence  seems  to  show  that  our  rivers  are  nearly  in 
balance  so  far  as  intrenchment  and  aggradation  are  concerned. 
The  valleys  are  only  so  many  trenches  which  have  been  in 
part  eroded  in  sand  bearing  formations.  While  we  recognize 
that  the  actual  amount  of  sand  in  the  state  may  be  decreasing, 
this  should  occasion  no  alarm,  for  the  transient  load  of  our 
streams  is  many  fold  more  than  can  ever  be  utilized,  not  to 
say  anything  of  the  vast  quantities  in  the  Glacial  and  Tertiary 
sand  plains.  The  permanence  of  the  sand  supply  of  Nebraska  is 
assured. 

The  demand  for  the  various  grades  of  sand  and  gravel  is 
rapidly  increasing  in  the  state.  Bordering  states  are  looking 
to  Nebraska  for  an  increase  in  their  supply. 

The  quantity  of  accessible  gravel  of  good  grade  is  not  equal 
to  the  demand. 

Washing  and  Screening. — Thus  far,  with  few  exceptions,  no 
attempt  has  been  made  to  either  screen  or  wash  sand  at  the 
p’aces  of  production.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  trade, 
as  it  is  now  organizing,  \vould  demand  a product  that  is  ready 
for  use.  The  screening  might  be  done  with  less  expense  at 
the  dredges  than  at  the  ]daces  of  sand  consumption.  As  the 
industry  further  develops,  we  may  expect  more  up-to-date 
methods  of  preparing  the  jiroducts  for  market.  Sand  thus 
prepared  will  demand  a higher  price,  but  the  results  will  be 
more  favorable  to  all  concerned. 

Shipment. — As  regards  the  e(|uij)ment  for  railroad  shipment, 
there  is  not  much  to  be  said.  Open  flat  cars  (gondolas) 
(Figure  26)  with  a capacity  of  80,000  to  loo.ooo  ll)s.  are  em- 
ployed. They  are  loaded  by  methods  already  described  and 
unloaded  by  hand  shovel,  except  from  ballast  cars  from  which 
the  sand  is  either  dumped  or  plowed  off.  It  would  seem  that 
the  railroads  would  hud  a less  expensive  method  for  hauling 
and  handling  engine  sand  and  that  some  form  of  sand  car 
should  be  designed  for  general  shipment. 

Sand  Storage. — Most  sand  dealers  use  simple  forms  of  stor- 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


75 


age  made  of  board  enclosures.  Others  place  the  sand  in  closed 
bins  from  which  the  retail  trade  is  supplied. 

Since  sand  is  affected  but  little  by  weathering  agencies,  there 
is  no  special  need  for  housing  it  except  to  prevent  waste 
and  to  economize  hand'ing.  The  Burlington  railroad  stores 
50  to  TOO  cars  of  engine  sand  (Figure  26)  in  a simple  enclosure 
at  Lincoln. 

Delivery. — The  delivery  from  cars  or  from  storage  in  small 
towns  is  made  with  farm  wagons.  In  cities  some  means  of 
conveyance  better  designed  for  the  purpose  is  employed  (Fig- 
ure 27)  and  the  sand  is  unloaded  by  hand  dumping.  Sand  wag- 
ons of  this  kind  carrying  4,000  to  8,500  lbs.  of  material  are 
used  in  Omaha  and  Lincoln.  The  cost  of  this  delivery  is  about 
35c.  or  40c.  a yard. 


Fij?.  27.  Loading?  sand  waj^ons  for  city  trade. 

Photo  by  Roy  V,  PeT)i>erber^r 

PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS. 

It  is  not  possible  for  the  writer  to  satisfactorily  separate 
the  state  into  districts,  since  there  is  no  logical  basis 
for  division  The  most  feasible  division  seems  to  be  to 


76 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


sejiarate  the  state  into  divisions  which  correspond  in  their  posi- 
tion to  the  drainage  basin.  According  to  this  liasis  the  dist- 
ricts are — the  ^lissonri  River,  Niobrara,  Elkhorn,  Lonp,  Platte, 
Big  Nemaha,  Big  Bine.  Little  Bine,  Republican,  and  A'hite 
River.  Physical  analyses  of  the  representative  sands  of  each 
district  and  of  the  state  in  general  are  shown  by  tables  at  the 
end  of  this  chapter. 


THE  MI::^S()LR1  RIVER  DISTRICT. 

T1  e sand  bearing  formations  in  this  part  of  the  state  are 
a’lnvium.  drift.  Tertiary,  Dakota,  and  a sandy  member 
of  the  Pennsylvanian.  The  Pennsylvanian  sands  were 
considered  in  Chapter  II  and  since  they  have  very  little  econ- 
omic importance  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  extend  the  descrip- 
tion. The  Dakota  formation  is  prominently  exposed  along  the 
Missouri  River  in  Dixon,  Dakota,  Thurston,  and  Burt  Counties, 
where  it  supplies  a small  part  of  the  local  demand.  It  should 
become  of  value  in  the  district,  since  its  friable  sand  rock  is 
favorably  located,  if  the  product  is  ever  used  in  glass  making. 
The  Tertiary  sands  in  the  district,  which,  according  to  Pro- 
fessor Todd,  are  of  Pliocene  age,  outcrop  in  the  ^lissouri  \’alley 
from  western  Knox  County  eastward  to  Dixon  County.  They 
consist  of  thick  sheets  of  fine  sand,  and  of  coarse  sand  and 
gravel.  Except  near  the  mouths  of  ravines  and  along  certain 
tributary  valleys  as  the  Baziie  and  the  Bows,  the  overlying 
stripping  is  so  thick  as  to  preclude  all  possibility  of  profitable 
production,  even  though  favorable  transportation  facilities 
should  be  secured. 

Quite  large  exposures  of  coarse  sand,  part  Pliocene  and  part 
glacial,  occur  along  Bazi  e Creek,  north  of  Creighton.  The 
sand  plain  which  comes  to  the  surface  near  Creighton  extends 
eastward  in  the  up’and  to  Dixon  County  and  is  worked  near 
Hartington  and  Co’eridge.  It  is  evident  that  enough  sand  is 
exposed  in  the  Bow  Valleys  of  Cedar  County  to  supply  all  that 
local  use  may  ever,  demand. 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


77 


Fig-.  28.  View  in  railroad  pit  at  Tekamah 


78 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


At  Ponca,  sand  and  clay  are  mined  from  the  same  opening 
in  the  northeast  part  of  town.  The  clay  overlies  the  sand. 
This  sand  evinces  water  deposition,  but  is  of  glacial  origin. 

Near  Martinsburg,  Dixon  County,  is  an  extensive  deposit 
of  glacio-fluvial  sand.  It  is  mined  at  different  places  in-  the 
vicinity,  but  only  for  local  use.  The  largest  pit  is  about  three- 
quarters  of  a mile  northeast  of  the  town. 

A large  bank  pit-  is  located  high  on  a Missouri  River  bluff 
near  the  boundary  line  between  Dixon  and  Dakota  counties. 
The  product  was  shipped  to  Sioux  City  on  barges. 

Glacial  deposits  have  yielded  hundreds  of  cars  of  sand  and 
gravel  at  Tekamah,  Burt  County  (Specimen  i*).  The  larg- 
est pit  is  on  a spur  of  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul  Minneapolis  and 
Omaha  railroad  (Figure  28).  It  is  about  2p2  miles  west  of 
the  city.  The  opening  is  250  x 650  ft.  in  its  largest  dimensions 
(Figure  29). 

^ See  tables  showing  mechanical  analyses  pf  one  hundred  specimens, 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


79 


The  stripping  ranges  from  a few  inches  to  four  or  five  feet 
in  thickness.  The  sand  averages  medium  coarse,  but  varies 
considerably  in  fineness  and  in  other  respects  at  different  places 
in  the  pit.  It  is  gray  to  yellowish  in  color  and  clean  to  dirty. 
Glacial  bowlders  occur  at  all  levels  in  the  sand  which  has  a 
maximum  vertical  exposure  of  35  ft.  About  70  large  bowlders 
lie  scattered  over  the  floor  of  the  pit.  They  are  mostly 
Sioux  quartzites,  granites,  gneiss,  and  arenaceous  limestones. 
Sand  is  loaded  at  this  place  by  hand-shovel,  and  by  team  and 
scraper.  The  output  has  been  used  very  generally  and  ex- 
tensively by  the  railroad  for  ballast  and  other  purposes.  The 
pit  also  serves  the  local  trade.  One-half  mile  south  of  this 
place  is  the  King  pit  from  which  Tekamah  obtains  a large  part 
of  its  supply.  There  are  two  pits  north  of  Tekamah,  one 
three  miles  and  the  other  eight  miles  from  the  city. 

It  is  not  known  how  large  the  sand  supply  is  in  Burt  County, 
yet  it  is  safe  to  say  that  only  a small  quantity  of  the  available 
product  has  been  mined.  The  sand  lies  uncomformalily  on  the 

Dakota  formation  and  is  exposed  in  several  slopes  in  the 

vicinity  of  the  large  railroad  pit.  It  appears  to  lie  in  old 

glacial  drainage  ways,  located  along  the  east  face  of  an 

escarpment  of  the  Dakota  formation.  If  the  sand  was 
coarser  it  would  have  a larger  utilization.  Thick  stripping  is 
a hindrance  at  places. 

The  local  sand  supply  at  Blair  is  small.  Near  Omaha,  bank 
pits  are  operated  at  Florence  (Specimen  2),  east  of  South 
Omaha,  and  south  of  Gibson.  The  sand  deposits  in  the  vicinity 
of  Omaha  have  been  thoroughly  prospected  by  Mr.  Hugh 
Murjdiy.  d'hough  the  quality  favors  mining,  the  thick  strip- 
ping entirely  jirevents  it  at  some  places.  'I'he  production  in 
the  Kearney  and  llasbrook  pits  below  Gibson  is  to  be  increased 
(Specimen  5 ).  Certain  contractors  in  Omaha  prefer  this  sand 
to  that  supplied  from  the  Platte  dredges.  As  a result  of  this 
preference,  stripjiings  10  to  40  ft.  thick  are  being  removed  from 
above  a large  body  of  sand.  'J'lie  sand  is  yellowish  gray,  to 
iron  yellow  in  color.  It  is  medium  grained  and  angular  to 
sharp.  Pebbles  of  Sioux  quartzite,  vitreous  quartz,  granite 


80 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


and  feldspar  occur  in  it  and  are  removed  by  screening. 

Not  much  sand  is  pr.oduced  in  the  Missouri  River  counties 
south  of  the  Platte.  The  river  sand  is  coarser  south  of 
Plattsmouth  than  to  the  north  and  on  that  account  is  made  use 
of  to  some  extent  in  construction  as  at  Nebraska  City  (Speci- 
men 7).  A coarse  sand  is  found  at  the  bluffs  about  two  miles 
north  of  Peru  (Specimen  8).  Small  pits  are  operated  for  local 
use  in  the  ATeping  MTter  and  Little  Nemaha  valleys  (Figure 
30),  (Specimen  9). 

Quality  of  Missouri  River  Sand. — Samples  for  study  were 
collected  from  sand  bars  at  various  points  between  Sioux  City 
and  Kansas  City.  Laboratory  examinations  warrant  the  fol- 
lowing description : 

The  river  sand  is  gray  when  dry;  the  grains  are  subangular 
and  fine,  much  of  the  sand  passing  mesh  100.  Vitreous  quartz 
is  the  predominating  mineral.  Hematite,  hornblende,  and  a 
considerable  showing  of  mica  flakes  are  the  accessory  minerals. 
Clay  is  the  principal  impurity.  A sample  taken  at  Omaha  has 
the  following  chemical  analysis : 


Silica 

76.49 

Ferric  oxide 

I.OI 

Alumina 

1773 

Calcium  oxide 

2.33 

Magnesium  oxide 

.89 

Sodium  oxide 

•33 

Potassium  oxide 

.96 

Undetermined 

.16 

Total 

100.00 

It  is  evident  that  the  dark  mica  contains  much  of  the 
magnesium  and  that  the  clay  gives  the  high  percent  of  alum- 
inum oxide. 

Though  the  supply  of  the  ^Missouri  River  sand  is  large  it  is 
not  probable  that  much  of  it  will  ever  be  used  in  construction 
unless  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  grading  other  sands  (Specimens 
3 and  4).  That  the  sand  is  coarser  south  of  Plattsmouth  is 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


81 


Fig.  30.  Sand  pit  in  Dakota  Formation,  Bennett. 


82 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGIC AE  SURVeY 


Fig-  31.  Bank  of  glass  sand  near  Valentine. 

shown  hy  specimens  6 and  8.  Analyses  of  sands  of  the  district 
are  shown  by  the  tables  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 


THE  NIOBRARA  DISTRICT. 

The  production  here  is  obtained  from  Tertiary,  glacial  and 
allindal  deposits.  Dune  sands  occur  in  some  places,  but  they 
are  not  a source  of  supply  (Specimens  lo  and  12).  Since  the 
region  is  not  thickly  settled,  production  for  local  use  is  small. 
However,  the  supply  is  large,  especially  so  in  the  vicinity  of 
Long  Pine  where  the  Northwestern  Railroad  loads  with  a steam 
shovel  during  the  summer  months.  The  pit  is  on  a spur  about 
one  mile  west  of  the  town.  The  output  is  used  for  ballast,  con- 
crete, and  other  railroad  purposes.  Engine  sand  has  been  se- 
sured  from  a pit  southwest  of  Long  Pine.  Sand  in  this  part  of 
the  district  is  thought  to  be  of  Pliocene  age.  Stripping  is 
either  thin  or  nearly  wanting:  the  sand  is  gray  to  yedovvish 
and  medium  to  coarse  grained.  It  requires  screening  when 
used  for  plastering. 

In  the  central  and  western  parts  of  the  district  farmers  and 
ranchmen  find  it  convenient  to  ol)tain  their  sand  supply  from 
valley-wash  along  the  small  streams.  The  source  of  the  coarse 


t^EObuOTtON  BY  DISTRICTS  83 

sand  of  these  stream  beds  usually  is  in  the  Tertiary  formations. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Valentine  is  found  what  may  prove  to  be  a 
g ass  sand  (Figure  31).  It  occurs  at  a number  of  places  near 
the  city.  Mr.  Cornell  has  fully  prospected  all  of  the  different 
banks  near  the  town.  The  sand  is  light  gray  in  color  and  runs 
ov'er  97  per  cent  silica  (Specimen  ii).  Its  physical  properties 
are  shown  in  one  of  the  tables. 

Pockets  of  glacial  sand  and  gravel  lie  on  the  slopes, south  of 
the  town  of  Niobrara  and  along  Verdigre  Creek.  They  have 
been  worked  for  ballast  and  for  use  in  concrete  by  the  North- 
western railroad.  The  unfavorable  conditions  under  which 
they  occur  does  not  favor  extensive  working. 

The  Niobrara  River  carries  a heavy  load  of  fine  to  medium 
fine  sand.  This  alluvium,  though  not  deep,  is  fine  grained 
above  and  coarse  near  its  base. 

THE  ELKHORN  DISTRICT. 

1'here  is  sand  production  at  or  near  most  towns  in  this 
district.  The  sources  are  the  un-named  Tertiary  beds,  irreg- 
ularly disposed  glacial  deposits,  and  valley-wash. 

The  sand  plain  comes  to  the  surface  in  Rock  and  Holt  Coun- 
ties where  it  has  supplied  many  trainloads  of  sand  for  railroad 
purposes  and  the  demands  of  the  country  and  towns.  Two 
large  pits  located  about  midway  between  Stuart  and  Atkinson, 
are  served  by  spurs  of  the  Northwestern  railroad.  Mr.  E.  C. 
Bishop,  Deputy  State  Superintendent,  furnishes  the  following 
description  of  the  pit  which  is  now  producing.  “The  opening, 
about  three-fourths  mile  long,  has  been  worked  back  50  ft.  to 
125ft.  and  to  a depth  of  10  to  15  ft.  The  pit  is  owned  and  opera- 
ted by  the  Northwestern  Railroad.  Stripping  is  thin;  in  fact 
most  of  it  is  mined  with  the  sand.  For  eight  years  loading  has 
been  done  with  hand  shovel.  The  sand  is  coarse,  stratified,  dry 
above  and  dam])  below  (S])ecimens  13  and  14).  It  is  used  for 
surfacing  the  road-bed.  The  out|)ut  has  been  10  to  24  cars  a 
day.  The  ])roduct  goes  as  far  east  as  Fremont  and  for  a consid- 
erable distance  to  the  west.” 

Sand  of  this  quality  might  be  produced  at  various  places 


84 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


in  this  vicinity,  yet  most  of  it  is  not  coarse  enough  for  railroad 
use. 

Neligh  is  supplied  from  local  sand  banks  and  from  bars  along 
the  Elkhorn  River.  Mr.  C.  W.  Crum  describes  the  sand 
resources  and  production  in  ^Madison  County  thus: 

“Two  miles  north  of  ]\Ieadow  Grove  is  a large  deposit  of 
coarse  sand  near  the  surface.  It  is  easily  mined,  stripping  be- 
ing a small  item.  This  production  is  used  in  road  making  and 
for  roofing.  There  are  four  sand  pits  on  the  hill  slopes  near 
Madison.  Their  product  is  of  two  grades;  one  contains  fine 
sand  which  is  used  as  a filler  for  brick  sidewalks  and  the  other 
is  a clean  white  sand  of  good  quality  for  plastering.  Sand  in 
these  pits  is  overlaid  with  loess,  which  thickens  in  the  hills, 
making  extensive  mining  impossible.  Consequently  the  pits 
are  small  and  not  of  much  importance.  A large  gravel  pit  is 
located  about  three  miles  southeast  of  Norfolk  from  which 
practically  all  of  Norfolk’s  building  material  of  this  kind  is 
secured,  and  some  of  the  product  is  shipped  to  other  towns. 
Small  pits  are  operated  about  one  mile  east  of  Norfolk.  The 
same  formation  which  is  worked  here  extends  under  a part  of 
Norfolk  and  along  the  valley  in  the  opposite  direction  to  Stan- 
ton County.  River  sand  is  also  used  at  Norfolk,  and  at  Battle- 
Creek.  Tilden  obtabis  sand  and  gravel  from  a bank  pit.  Six 
miles  northwest  of  Tilden,  in  Antelope  County,  are  two  gravel 
pits  on  the  north  side  of  the  river. 

Stanton  obtains  gravel  and  sand  from  the  river  bed.  A 
gravel  pit  8 miles  north  west  of  the  city  has  been  operated  21 
years.  Bank  sand  lying  above  the  level  of  the  bottom  land 
and  overlaid  by’  the  loess  is  mined  at  Wisner,  West  Point, 
Scribner,  and  Hooper.  Sand  is  shipped  from  Scribner. 

There  are  a few  sand  pits  on  the  North  Fork  of  the  Elkhorn. 
Two  of  these  are  being  worked.  One  is  located  four  miles 
and  a half  southeast  of  Pierce  and  the  other,  7 miles  north  by 
northwest  of  Pierce.  The  production  from  these  places  is 
sufiicient  to  supply  local  demands. 

The  conditions  in  the  Logan  Valley  are  similar  to  those  along 
the  Elkhorn.  The  sands  of  Wayne  County  appear  to  be  of 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


85 


little  consequence.  Usually  they  lie  too  far  below  the  surface. 
Most  of  the  county  is  supplied  by  shipment  from  Hartington 
and  the  Platte.  Nine  miles  northeast  of  Wayne  is  a coarse 
sand  worked  in  an  open  ])it.  Wakefield,  Pender  and  Lyons 
have  small  pits  and  each  has  shijiped  a jiart  of  the  j)roduction. 
Oakdale  supplies  local  trade  and  small  shipments.  Formerly 
sand  was  mined  in  a pit  just  below  the  station  at  Thurston. 

d'HE  LOUP  DISTRICT. 

The  production  here  comes,  for  the  most  part,  from  a sand 
p’ain  lying  below  the  loess  and  from  river  lieds.  A small  part 
of  the  sand  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  district  is  of  glacial  origin. 
The  dune  sands  are  not  used  to  any  extent  ( Siiecimens  15  and 
j6). 

The  Middle  Loup  has  deposited  coarse  sand  and  gravel  along 
its  bed  between  Halsey  and  Thedford  (Figure  32).  The  larg- 
est accumulations  of  this  kind  are  about  six  or  seven  iniTs 
above  Halsey.  This  material  is  being  loaded  and  shijiped  to 
Broken  Bow  where  it  proves  to  be  a good  grade  of  commer- 
cial sand  for  certain  purposes.  According  to  one  report  it  does 
not  seem  to  be  well  adapted  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
cement  blocks. 


Fig.  32.  ^andy  alluvium  along  the  Middle  Loup,  near  Halsey. 
Dunesand  shows  in  the  distance. 


86  NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  StJRVEY 

Mr.  J.  G.  W.  Lewis  reports  the  following  for  Custer 
County:  “There  are  sand  and  gravel  pits  in  at  least  the 

fo'lowing  localities  in  the  county:  near  ^lason  City,  Ansley, 

Sargent,  Gates  P.  O.,  Calloway  and  ArnoVl.  The  pits  near 
Ans  ey,  Mason  City  and  Sargent  Tad  in  production.  The 
gravel  and  sand  used  in  Broken  Bow  is  shipped  largely  from 
Ravenna.  Very  little  sand  is  shipped  out  of  the  county.  The 
production  is  used  for  bui  ding  in  the  various  loca  ities.” 

At  most  pTces  in  this  part  of  the  state,  the  bank  sands  are 
covered  with  6 to  15  in.  of  soil.  The  Loup  Rivers  contain 
much  sand  some  of  which  is  suited  for  bui'ding  purposes 
(Specimens  17,  18,  19),  but  it  is  not  very  accessible  to  markets. 
Extensive  sand  deposits  occur  in  the  river-bed  near  Ravenna, 
St.  Paid,  Ful’erton,  and  Genoa.  In  most  p’aces  it  is  fine  and 
worked  to  supply  only  a part  of  the  local  use.  Bank  pits  supp’y 
mo^'t  of  the  demands. 

Similar  conditions  prevail  in  each  principal  va'ley  of  the 
Loup  System.  Ord  is  supplied  by  a number  of  pits,  but 
mostly  from  one  just  southeast  of  the  city  (Specimen  20). 
Here,  beneath  about  three  feet  of  stripping,  is  8 to  12  ft.  of 
coarse  building  sand.  Evidently  it  is  of  Rocky  Mountain  origin. 

Boone  County  ships  most  of  its  supply  from  Oakdale,  Fre- 
mont, and  Columbus,  local  deposits  being  too  fine  for  most 
purposes.  Newman  Grove  produces  no  sand.  Its  supply 
comes  mostly  from  Fremont.  There  is  a large  pit  in  Platte 
County,  near  Lindsay,  from  which  Newman  Grove  and  vicinity 
secured  sand  before  the  railroad  was  built. 

THE  PLATTE  DISTRICT. 

This  district  produces  most  of  the  State’s  sand  and  gravel. 
The  production  comes  from  the  Dakota,  Tertiary,  glacial  and 
aduvial  formations,  the  last  named  leading  in  amount.  For  the 
purpose  of  description  the  region  is  divided  into  subdistricts. 

The  North  Platte. — Here  occur  vast  quantities  of  coarse 
sand  (Specimen  21)  and  gravel  both  in  the  river  and  on  the 
valley-slopes.  The  deposits  are  all  of  Rocky  Mountain  origin, 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


87 


Fi«:.  33.  Overloaded  North  Platte  near  Scott’s  Bluff.  Photo  b\  N.  H.  i>arion. 


88 


NEBRASTA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEV 


having  been  carried  to  their  position  at  different  periods  by 
rivers.  The  Platte  is  now  bringing  in  much  sand  and  gravel 
at  flood  stages  and  dropping  it  as  valley-wash  at  low  stages 
(Figure  33).  This  deposit  contains  a large  number  of  min- 
erals and  rocks  whose  fragments  range  in  sizes  from  fine  sand 
to  cobble  stones. 

The  valley-sides  contain  conglomerate  rock  which,  for  the 
most  part,  is  the  same  as  the  stream  gravel  except  for  its 
greater  age  and  its  matrix.  Residual  gravel  and  pebbles  are 
formed  by  the  disintegration  of  conglomerate  beds.  In  some 
localities  such  accumulations  have  a bench  form  and  are  there 
called  terrace  gravels. 

Thus  far  the  North  Platte’s  arenaceous  accumulations  have 
not  been  utilized  very  generally.  The  conditions  here  do  not, 
as  a rule,  favor  mining  on  a large  scale.  This  is  especially  the 
case  with  the  Tertiary  in  which  the  gravel  occurs  as 
])Ockets  and  channel  deposits.  The  Burlington  railroad  has 
obtained  dirty  sand  and  gravel  for  ballast  in  a pocket  at  Vance. 
Careful  search  should  reveal  a sand  and  gravel  supp’y  of  impor- 
tance in  this  region.  The  most  dependable  source  is  thought 
to  be  in  the  river  bed. 

The  rapid  agricultural  development  which  is  assured  for  this 
region  will  require  materials  for  construction  purposes,  of 
which  sand  is  the  most  accessible.  With  this  demand  should 
come  prospecting  and  an  increase  of  production.  The  gravels 
and  sands  are  quite  sure  to  become  the  leading  building  mater- 
ials, and,  if  the  right  kinds  can  be  found  they  will  be  used  for 
ballast.  Some  of  the  present  production  is  used  in  irrigation 
construction. 

Sidney  and  Chappel. — Coarse  sand  of  late  Tertiary  age  oc- 
curs at  different  places  in  the  Lodge  Pole  Valley  but  appar- 
ently in  largest  quantities  near  Sidney  and  Chappel.  Sma’l 
pits  are  worked  for  local  use  at  Sidney  and  some  sand  is 
shipped  in  from  Co’orado.  The  slopes  north  of  Chappel  con- 
tain coarse  gravel  and  pebbles,  but  the  amount  of  accessible 
material  here  has  not  been  determined.  At  places  it  is  over- 
laid with  loess.  Thus  far  the  production  has  been  small.  The 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


89 


towns  obtain  their  sand  supply  from  the  valley-wash  of  small 
ravines.  ^ 

The  South  Platte. — Test  wells  sunk  along  the  bottom  lands 
of  this  valley  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  rate  of  under 
how,  have  shown  that  the  alluvium  is  thick  and  composed  of 
coarse  materials.  Sand  of  the  desired  fineness  and  quality  for 
local  use  is  hauled  from  sand  bars  which  usually  contain  sands 
of  different  degrees  of  fineness,  within  a small  surface  area. 

North  Platte  and  Lexington  obtain  most  of  their  sand  from 
the  Platte,  finding  an  adequate  supp’y  with  only  the  expense 
of  hauling  (Specimen  22). 

In  the  Vicinity  of  Kearney. — In  this  part  of  the  district  the 
supply  comes  from  the  Platte,  and  a sand  plain  which  out- 
crops in  the  valley  sides  below  the  loess.  Mr.  F.  W.  Montgom- 
ery of  Elwood  reports  the  following  for  the  northern  part  of 
Gosper  County:  “The  sand  pits  of  the  county  are  not 
favorably  located  for  extensive  working.  The  sand  is  furnished 
by  the  Platte  River  and  two  bank  pits.  One  of  these  pits  is 
situated  on  section  28,  township  8 N,  range  21  W.  It  is  on  the 
east  side  of  Plum  Creek  Valley  and  is  reached,  at  its  present 
state  of  development,  by  drifting.  If  worked  extensively,  the 
clay  stripping  would  be  from  2 to  20  ft.  thick.  'Phe  other  pit 
is  situated  on  section  24,  township  6 N.  Range  23  W.  It  is  an 
outcrop  in  the  right  bank  of  Elk  Creek;  and  if  worked  to  any 
extent  the  stri])ping  would  become  2 to  10  ft.  thick.  A few 
thick  layers  of  light  colored  magnesia  rock  lie  immediately 
above  the  sand.  The  sand  in  both  pits  is  of  excellent  cpiality 
for  plaster  when  screened,  but  contains  too  much  coarse 
gravel  to  be  used  otherwise.  These  pits  are  too  far  from 
railroads  to  be  worked  commerciaMy  at  a ]>rofit,  the  sand  taken 
from  them  being  merely  for  use  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
iClmwood  ships  sand  from  Lowell.”  Kearney’s  large  supply  of 
sand  comes  from  the  Platte  Hood  plain  and  from  sand  bars. 
'The  city  is  underlaid  with  sand  and  gravel  at  a (le])th  of  four 
or  five  feet.  At  places  enough  good  ])laster  and  masonry  sand 
is  removed  from  a cellar  excavation  to  su])])ly  all  that  is  needed 
in  a large  building.  The  flood  plain  at  Kearney  is  thought  to 


90 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


be  aliont  200  feet  thick.  Prof.  A.  J.  Mercer  of  Kearney  reports 
as  follows:  ‘Alost  of  the  sand  usechin  Kearney  comes  from  the 

north  channel  of  the  Platte  River.  It  requires  experience 
here  in  selecting  the  sand  as  all  grades  may  be  found  at  the 
same  place.  (Specimens  23  and  24).  A few  pits  are  worked,  but 
even  these  are  in  an  old  bed  of  the  Platte  covered  with  a few 
feet  of  soil.  The  N.  L.  Hoover  pit  was  opened  in  1889.  Since 
its  opening  it  has  produced  20,000  yards  of  sand  of  which  5,000 
yards  were  shipped  and  the  remainder  used  at  home.  This 
sand  has  been  used  mainly  for  plastering. 

The  M.  Braiding  pit  was  opened  in  the  spring  of  1905,  and 
about  500  tons  taken  out  during  the  season.  Its  product  is 
used  for  cement  walks,  filling,  brick-laying  and  plaster.  The 
sand  at  these  pits  is  covered  with  about  three  feet  of  stripping. 

Much  sand  was  hauled  from  the  river  during  the  past  year 
for  different  uses.  The  Kearney  Hydraulic  Stone  Company 
used  5550  tons  in  the  manufacture  of  stone  for  the  walks  of  the 
State  Normal  building  and  3750  tons  for  other  buildings  in  the 
city.  Knutsen  and  Isdell  used  750  yards  in  mortar  for  the 
walls,  and  plaster  at  the  State  Normal  Building.  Dr.  A.  O. 
Thomas  has  used  100  tons  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial 
stone  for  his  residence.  John  H.  Beebe  Hauled  6700  tons  from 
the  Platte  and  used  it  in  the  construction  of  sidewalks  in  the 
city. 

In  all  about  18,000  tons  of  sand  were  used  in  the  city  during 
the  year  1905.'’ 

Formerly  a pit  was  operated  on  a Burlington  spur  about 
two  and  one-haff  miles  east  of  Kearney.  The  opening  is  one- 
fourth  mile  long  and  is  worked  back  75  to  100  ft.  This  may 
prove  to  be  a suitable  place  for  a dredging  station. 

Sand  is  produced  for  shipment  and  local  use  from  a pit 
about  half  a mile  east  of  Lowell  station.  Formerly  the  loading 
here  was  by  hand  shovel,  now  it  is  with  team  and  scraper.  The 
spur  and  pit  are  south  of  the  Burlington  railroad.  The 
opening  is  200  yds.  long  and  100  ft.  wide,  the  working  extend- 
ing to  the  water  line,  The  sand  is  alluvial  and  the  stripping 
thin. 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


91 


Grand  Island. — The  production  and  conditions  here  are  sim- 
ilar to  those  at  Kearney.  The  sand  is  taken  from  an  old 
channel  of  the  Platte  and  from  excavations  for  cellars  and 
foundations.  The  Union  Pacific  pit  is  the  largest  producer. 
The  product  from  this  and  two  openings  west  of  the  city  is 
used  for  local  use.  There  is  some  shipment  southward  to 
towns  along  the  St.  Joe  and  Grand  Island  railroad. 

Central  City. — This  part  of  the  state  is  well  supplied  with 
Platte  River  sand  as  is  shown  by  the  following  from  F.  A. 
Marsh,  who  -reports  for  Central  City  and  Merrick  County. 
“Perhaps  a dozen  sand  pits  are  operated  in  Merrick  County 
for  local  consumption  only.  The  sand  is  used  almost  ex- 
clusively for  building  purposes.  Mr.  D.  Y.  Clark  of  this  city 
is  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cement  blocks  and  brick. 
Mr.  W.F.  Porter  of  Kearney  also  operates  a plant  of  the  same 
kind  here. 

Most,  if  not  all  of  the  soil  is  underlaid  with  thick  beds  of 
sand.  The  depth  of  soil  varies  from  zero  to  ten  or  twelve  feet. 
There  are  large  areas  where  sand  suitable  for  building  purposes 
may  be  easily  obtained. 

So  far  as  I know,  but  little  of  our  sand  has  been  used  by  the 
railroads.  Very  little  sand  has  ever  been  shipped  out  of  the 
county,  and  of  course  no  one  woidd  think  of  shipping  it  in, 
considering  our  home  supply.” 

Columbus. — There  is  shipment  from  this  city  to  towns  in 
the  Loup  Valley.  The  local  supply  is  large.  The  coarse  sand 
comes  mostly  from  the  Platte  bed  (Specimen  25)  and  the  finer 
material,  for  plastering,  from  the  Loup  River. 

Schuyler. — About  eight  sand  pits  are  in  operation  near  this 
city.  d'he  cjuality  of  the  sand  and  the  conditions  for  ])ro- 
duction  are  about  the  same  as  at  Columbus  and  Central  City. 
The  northern  part  of  Colfax  County  ships  its  sand  from 
Scribner  and  h'remont. 

Fremont. — During  the  past  three  years  much  sand  has  been 
shipped  from  near  this  city.  d'he  Great  Northern  dredges 
operated  south  of  the  river,  and  loaded  thousands  of  yarcjs  of 


92 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


1,  FREMONT  ICE  Co.  DREDGE  /^sa  FIT 
2^  C^^im  R.R.  5MND  PIT  , 

3,  LYMPN  DREDGE  /ind  PIT 


Fig,  34.  Outline  showing  location  of  sand  pits  west  of  Fremont. 

river  and  alluvial  sand  for  ballast  and  for  surfacing  the  road 
bed.  A few  small  ])its  south  and  southwest  of  Freir.ont  are 
producing.  Their  product  is  hauled  to  market  with 
teams.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  Fremont 
should  not  become  a leading  sand-producing  center,  since  the 
supply  is  practically  limitless  and  the  transportation  faci'ities 
permit  shipment  in  all  directions. 


Fig.  35.  Fremont  Ice  Company  Dredge. 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


Fig.  36.  Lyman  dredge  west  of  Fremont. 


94 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fig.  37.  Outline  showing  location  of  dredges  at  Valle}’. 


One  of  the  oVlest  pits  in  this  vicinity  is  operated  on  the 
Northwestern  railroad  about  four  miles  west  of  the  city.  The 
loading  is  done  with  hand  shovel.  The  product  is  used 
loca'ly  and  for  shipment.  The  opening,  on  a siding  north  of 
the  mainline,  is  one-half  mile  long  and  is  worked  back  200  to 
300  ft.  (Figure  34).  The  depth  of  mining  is  limited  by  the 
water  table. 

The  Fremont  Ice  Company’s  Sand  Dredge  is  located  on 
the  Northwestern  rai’road  about  two  miles  west  of  Fremont 
(Figure  35).  Sand  is  loaded  with  a large  clam  dredge,  the 
direction  of  working  being  westward.  The  opening  at  present 
is  about  175  ft.  wide,  600  ft.  long  and  40  ft.  deep.  From  six  to 
twelve  cars  of  commercial  sand  (Specimen  26)  are  loaded  dai’y, 
the  product  being  shipped  to  Lincoln,  Omaha,  points  in  Iowa, 
and  as  far  northwest  as  Norfolk.  The  sand  is  fine  above  the 
waterline,  and  becomes  gradually  coarser  with  depth. 

The  Lyman  Dredge  (Figure  36)  was  moved  during  the  past 
year  from  Cedar  Creek  to  a point  about  4^  miles  west  of 


PRODCCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


95 


Fig.  38.  Lyman  Dredge,  Valley 


96 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Ono  of  tho  Woodworth  dre(]^es  at  Valley 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


97 


Fremont.  It  is  now  operating  on  a spur  of  the  Northwestern 
railroad  and  shipping  very  generally  over  that  system  to  points 
in  eastern  Nebraska  (Specimens27  and  28). 

Dredging  at  Valley. — Figure  37  shows  the  locations  of  the 
three  dredges  at  this  place.  They  operate  on  spurs  of  the 
Union  Pacific  railroad.^ 

The  Lyman  Dredge  (Figure  38)  has  been  in  operation  eight 
years,  loading  6 to  12  cars  of  thirty  to  forty  yards  each  a day 
The  product  (Specimen  29)  goes  to  a number  of  towns  and 
cities  in  Nebraska  and  Iowa.  The  shipment  is  over  the  Union 
Pacific.  The  clam  dredge  weighs  2800  pounds  and  the  car- 
rier 800  pounds.  The  engine  is  sixteen  horse  power,  and  the 
boiler  is  18  horse  power.  Some  loading  of  fine  surface  sand, 
mainly  for  bedding  cars,  is  done  with  scrapers  and  teams. 
Stripping  is  from  i to  3^^  ft.  thick.  The  dredging  is  extended  to 
a maximum  depth  of  60  ft.,  but  usually  to  only  40  or  50  ft. 
The  third  lake  is  now  in  process  of  excavation.  It  took  three 
years  to  dredge  out  the  second  lake.  One  of  these  lakes  is 
used  as  a source  of  water  for  thousands  of  sheep  owned  and  fed 
by  Hon.  W.  G.  Whitmore. 

The  production  of  this  dredge  is  nearly  all  sold  as  com- 
mercial sand.  It  is  used  for  plaster,  concrete,  engines, 
pavements,  and  for  car  bedding,  and  to  some  extent  for  ballast. 
All  below  twenty  feet  in  depth  averages  coarse. 

The  Woodworth  Dredges,  two  in  number  (Figure  39),  are 
on  a main  line  spur  of  the  Union  Pacific,  which  connects  also 
with  the  branch  to  Lincoln  and  Manhattan.  The  first  one  of 
these  to  be  operated  was  installed  about  eight  years  ago;  the 
other  in  1906.  When  the  writer  last  visited  these  dredges, 
eighteen  sand  cars,  mostly  loaded,  were  standing  on  the  siding, 
d'he  two  dredges  load  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cars  daily 
(Si)ecimens  30,31).  The  engines  are  fourteen  and  twenty 
horse  i)ower.  Dredge  number  one  was  operated  every  week 
of  the  year  ’05 — ’06.  The  dredging  is  progressing  westward. 
O-ne  clam  has  saw-tooth  edges  for  tearing  up  small  roots  and 
brush  that  occur  on  the  surface  of  the  sand.  vSome  trouble 
has  been  experienced  here  with  a thin  bed  of  clay  twenty  feet 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fig.  40.  Lyman  Dredge  on  C.  B.  & Q.  Railroad,  east  of  Ashland. 


^‘kODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS  99 

from  the  surface.  Aside  from  this  the  conditions  and  the  qual- 
ity of  sand  are  about  the  same  as  at  the  Lyman  dredging 
station  nearby. 

Enough  sand  has  been  loaded  by  the  Woodworth  dredges  to 
result  in  the  formation  of  a pit  and  lake  looo  ft.  long,  200  to  250 
ft.  wide  and  40  to  50  ft.  deep.  Below  50  ft.  is  a second  c’ay  bed 
which  it  is  difficult  to  penetrate.  The  surface  stripping  ranges 
from  2 to  4 ft.  in  thickness. 

There  is  a good  demand  for  the  sand  at  7 cents  to  15  cents 
a ton  loaded.  The  shipment  is  to  Nebraska,  Iowa  and  Mis- 
souri. 

The  quantity  of  sand  subject  to  dredging  in  the  vicinity  of 
Valley  is  very  large.  The  only  difficulty  will  be  to  secure 
suitable  dredging  places  near  the  town  and  railroad. 

The  Ashland  Dredge. — During  the  past  spring,  Mr.  Lyman 
installed  a large  dredge  on  the  Main  Line  of  the  Burlington 
railroad  at  a point  just  east  of  the  Platte  bridge.  The  spur 
and  dredge  ( Figure  40)  are  south  of  the  railroad  and  the  di- 
rection of  working  is  westward.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
desirable  locations  for  a dredge  in  the  state  and  the  quality 
of  sand  (Specimens  32-34 \ according  to  Mr.  Lyman,  is  about 
the  best.  The  production  goes  to  Lincoln  and  Omaha  for 
general  purposes,  and  to  the  Burlington  railroad  for  use  in 
ballasting  and  surfacing  track. 

The  Meadow  Dredges. — Meadow  station,  on  the  Rock  Is- 
land and  Missouri  Pacific  railroads,  is  one  of  the  best  known 
dredging  places  in  Nebraska  (Figure  41  ).  Large  quantities  of 
sand  have  been  dredged  out  in  years  past  (Specimens  37 — 39). 
Two  lakes  lying  just  south  of  the  station  and  extending  for 
about  half  a mi’e  along  the  Rock  Island  track,  and  three  large 
lakes  (Figure  42)  three-quarters  of  a mile  west  of  the  station 
substantiate  this  statement.  At  the  present  time  four  ])’ants  are 
in  operation.  The  first  of  these  was  instal'ed  about  12  years 
ago  by  Mr.  Lyman.  Formerly  it  was  located  on  a Rock  Island 
switch  at  the  lakes  west  of  the  station  and  norlh  of  the  rail- 
road. While  dredging  there  the  three  lakes  were  formed.  At 


100 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fig-.  41.  Outline  showing  location  of  dredges  and  pits,  Meadow 


present  the  dredge  (Figure  43)  is  operating  on  a Rock  Island 
switch  east  of  the  station  where  it  was  moved  in  August,  1904. 
This  plant,  though  not  large,  is  well  equipped.  The  clam  weighs 
2500  pounds;  the  carrier  750  pounds;  the  engine  is  16  horse 
power,  and  the  tower  is  30  ft.  high.  The  dredge  is  operated 
ten  hours  a day  for  an  average  of  nine  months  or  more  a 


Fig.  42.  Large  lakes  produced  by  sand  dredging^  at  Meadow. 


Fig.  43.  Lyman  dredge  on  C.  R.  I.  & P.  R.  R.,  Meadow 


102 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGTCAL  SURVEY 


Fig.  44.  Tho  Large  Lyman  Dredge  on  the  Missouri  Pacific,  Meadow. 


PRODUCTIO]^  BY  biSTRldTS 


103 


Fig.  45.  General  View  of  the  L^man  Sand  Pumping  Station,  Meadow. 


164  NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

year,  producing  6 to  lo  cars  a day.  Three  men  are  employed, 
an  engineer,  a loader,  and  a team  man,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
remove  one  to  two  feet  of  stripping  and  to  attend  to  the  loading. 

At  present,  after  two  years  of  operation,  two  acres  of  land 
have  been  dredged  to  a depth  of  50  feet.  The  production  has 
been  shipped  mostly  over  the  Rock  Island,  going  as  far  east 
as  Des  Moines  and  west  beyond  Lincoln.  The  sand  is  used  in 
engines,  for  pavement,  sidewalks,  plaster,  concrete  and  for 
track  finishing.  For  a while  the  product  of  this  dredge  ran 
too  fine  for  most  purposes  except  for  plastering  and  the  surface 
of  asphalt  pavement.  Recently,  when  the  towers  and  cables 
were  moved  westward,  the  sand  became  coarse  again. 

The  largest  clam  dredge  in  the  State  (Figure  44)  was  in- 
stalled on  a Missouri  Pacific  spur  southwest  of  Meadow  station 
by  Mr.  Lyman  in  June  1904.  Its  production  is  from  eight  to 
fifteen  cars  a day.  The  author  has  seen  as  many  as  eighteen 
loaded  cars  of  sand  on  the  spur  at  one  time.  Dredging  at  the 
time  the  photograph  was  taken,  was  progressing  eastward  and 
to  a depth  ranging  from  40  to  60  ft.  The  surface  opening  was 
200x700  ft.  in  size.  Stripping  varies  from  one  to  two  feet 
in  thickness. 

Small  deposits  of  clay  are  encountered  in  the  sand  at  some 
places.  The  sand  is  coarse  at  the  lowest  depths.  Some  effort 
is  made  here  to  load  the  different  grades  of  sand  (Specimen  37), 
according  to  fineness,  when  demanded.  Much  of  the  fine  sand 
below  the  grass  roots  is  loaded  by  scraper  and  team,  operating 
over  a trap,  located  to  the  east  or  in  advance  of  dredging. 

The  production  of  this  dredge  and  plant  is  shipped  over  the 
Missouri  Pacific,  most  of  it  going  to  Omaha  and  to  points  in 
Kansas  and  Missouri.  It  is  used  in  street  making,  plaster, 
concrete,  and  as  engine  sand. 

Mr.  Lyman  began  sand  pumping  (Figure  45)  from  the  Platte 
in  1906.  By  this  method  a large  quantity  of  sand  can  be  loaded 
within  a short  time.  At  present  a large  basin  above  water  level 
is  being  filled  from  which  sand  can  be  loaded  with  the  dredge 
during  the  coldest  weather. 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISRICTS 


105 


The  Woodworth  Dredge  (Figure  46)  has  operated  for  two 
years  on  a Missouri  Pacific  spur,  working  eastward.  The  sand 
here  seems  to  be  coarser  (Specimen  38)  than  that  produced  at 
most  of  the  dredges  and  on  that  account  it  is  in  strong  demand 
by  certain  contractors.  The  metliod  of  operation  and  the 
amount  of  output  are  about  the  same  as  at  other  similar 
p'ants. 


Fig.  4(5.  The  Woodworth  Dredge,  Meadow.  The  view  shows  how  sand 
is  deposited  on  the  bank  for  winter  loading. 

Louisville  Dredges. — 'Phese  are  owned  by  Mr.  Lyman  and 
by  the  Platte  River  Sand  Co.  (Figure  47).  Mr.  Frank  Rand, 
now  foreman  of  the  last  named  dredge  and  for  several  years  in 
charge  of  the  other  plant  has  furnished  the  writer  with  in- 
formation concerning  the  operations  at  Louisville.  The  Frst 
dredge  installed  in  this  vicinity  operated  first  below  town;  then 
northwest  of  the  Burlington  station,  until  it  was  moved  to  the 
present  position,  north  of  the  station  in  May  1903  (Figure  21). 
Jt  was  owned  first  by  Mr.  Robettsoiij  ^incl  tjwn  by  the  S, 


106 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Atwood  Company,  before  Mr.  Lyman  secured  it.  Dredging 
is  now  progressing  eastward  on  the  Burlington  railroad’s  spur. 
Sand  is  removed  to  a maximum  depth  of  70  ft.  without  striking 
bed  rock.  The  opening  at  preseiic  is  200x650  ft.  surface 
area.  The  clam  carries  a yard  or  more  of  sand  each  trip,  being 
nearly  as  large  as  that  at  the  Lyman  dredge  across  the  river.  A 
25  horse-power  boiler  and  a twenty  horse-power  engine  are 
used.  The  double  cabel  is  anchored  to  trees.  Very  little  strip- 
ping IS  done,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sand  is  mined  from  an 
abandoned  bed  of  the  river  in  which  there  is  a thin  layer  of  soil. 
Mr.  Rand  removed  a large  walnut  log  from  twenty-five  feet 
below  the  surface,  and  a large  number  of  fossil  bones  from 
various  depths  in  this  pit.  Eight  to  ten  cars  are  loaded  a 
day  for  shipment  to  Lincoln,  Omaha,  Council  Bluffs,  Glenwood, 
Creston,  and  elsewhere.  The  product  goes  to  about  50  towns 
in  Nebraska,  Iowa  and  Missouri.  Cars  average  forty  tons  each. 
This  plant  supplies  much  of  the  Burlington  railroad  engine 
sand  and  large  cjuantities  of  commercial  sand  (Specimen  41  '. 
Fine  surface  sand,  used  mostly  in  pavements  (Specimen  .j2),  is 
loaded  with  scraper  and  team.  Contractors  are  now  asking 
for  more  of  this  sand  than  can  be  produced. 

Recently  the  production  of  this  dredge  has  been  extended  to 
the  limit  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  surfacing  and  l^allast 
for  the  Milford  cut-off  line  of  the  Burlington  rai  road  between 
Lincoln  and  Billings. 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


107 


Fig.  48.  Platte  River  Sand  Company  Dred; 


108 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


The  Platte  River  Sand  Company’s  Dredge  (Figure  48)  was 
installed  during  the  spring  of  1907.  It  is  located  three-quarters 
of  a mile  west  of  Louisvihe,  on  a spur  of  the  Burlington  rail- 
road. The  pit  is  between  the  railroad  and  river  and  in  an 
open  stretch  of  the  flood  plain.  Dredging  is  progressing  west- 
ward. The  equipment  is  in  good  condition  and  the  technology 
is  as  elsewhere  at  similar  stations.  Just  now  the  production  is 
very  large,  and  the  plant  is  in  operation  night  and  day,  sup- 
plying city  trade  and  surfacing  sand  for  the  rai’road.  The  nor- 
mal production  is  about  10  or  12  cars  a day  of  ten  hours  work. 


Fig.  49.  Outline  showing  location  of  sand  production  at  Cedar  Creek. 


yet  as  many  as  24  cars  are  loaded  during  a day  working  two 
shifts. 

Cedar  Creek  Production. — The  first  shipment  of  sand  from 
Cedar  Creek  began  more  than  20  years  ago,  when  Mr,  Hugh 


PllODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


109 


‘Murphy  and  Mr.  A.  H.  Parmalee  Maded  with  teams  and  scrap- 
ers. Mr.  Murpliy  operated  about  three-c|uarters  of  a mile 
be’ow  the  station  loading-  for  three  or  four  years  with  teams 
and  later  with  a l)oat  dredge  (Figure  49'.  This  dredge  con- 
veyed sand  from  the  water  to  the  cars,  fi  ling  ten  to  forty  cars 
a day  when  w^orking  at  full  speed.  By  these  methods,  sand 
was  removed  to  a depth  of  fifteen  feet  over  an  area  of  four  or 
five  acres.  The  boat  dredge  was  used  about  10  years,  its 

product  going  mostly  for  street  making  in  Omaha. 

Mr.  Parma, ee’s  mining  was  in  the  first  pit  east  of  the  station. 
No  loading  was  done  from  below  the  water  line,  hence  only 
fine  sand  was  produced.  However,  thousands  of  cars  of  this 
grade  were  shipped  during  the  five  years  of  production. 

The  clam  dredge  owned  by  the  S.  H.  Atwood  Company, 
began  work  just  north  of  the  Burlington  station,  in  1888,  and 
dredged  westward.  At  first  about  400  cars  of  fine  sand  were 
loaded  with  teams.  The  dredge  (Figure  50),  after  forming  a 
pit  175  ft.  wide,  9 to  36  ft.  deep  and  80  rods  long,  was  moved  a 
few  rods  farther  west,  where  it  operated  until  1907.  Some 
loading  of  fine  sand  was  done  here  aTo  wdth  scrapers  and 
teams.  The  production  of  this  pit,  6 to  10  cars  a day,  was 
shipped  over  the  Burlington  railroad  to  various  points  in  Ne- 
braska and  Iowa.  No  dredge  in  the  State  has  produced  more 
engine  sand.  Cedar  Creek  sand  is  about  the  same  in  quality 
as  that  at  Louisville,  Meadow,  and  Valley,  except  that  it 
averages  finer  (Specimens  44  and  45). 

Oreapolis  Production. — A dredge  was  installed  one  mile 
and  a half  east  of  Oreapolis  station  in  1905.  Since  that  time 
its  production  has  been  intermittent  with  an  average  of  7 or 
cars  a day  when  operating.  One  end  of  the  double  cable  is 
anchored  on  a sandbar  and  the  other  over  a tower  whichi 
stands  on  the  river  bank.  Dredging  is  from  the  Platte  River 
bed,  hence  there  is  no  stripping.  The  plant  is  owned  by  the 
D.  G.  Lyman  Sand  Co.,  and  shipment  is  on  the  Burlingtoni 
railroad  to  points  in  Nebraska  and  Iowa. 

Recently  a sand  pump  (Figure  51)  was  put  in  at  this  place 


110 


NE  RASK  \ GEOLOGICAL  S^UKVEY 


50.  The  S.  II.  Atwood  Company  Dredg-e,  Cedar  Creek 


PRODUCTION"  BY  DISTRICTS 


nr 


Fig.  51.  Sand  Pumping  near  Oreapolis 

and  at  times  its  production  has  been  in  excess  of  that  of  the 
dredge.  However,  we  need  not  expect  a large  production 
from  this  station  unless  the  plan  of  operation  is  changed,  since 
the  Platte  bed  is  not  a dependable  source  from  which  to  either 
dredge  or  sand  pump. 

Source  of  Platte  Sand  in  General. — This  sand  has  been  and 
is  derived  from  several  sources.  The  prevalent  notion  that  all 
of  it  has  come  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  an  error  for  a 
stud}^  of  samples  taken  at  Fremont,  Valley,  Louisville  and 
Cedar  Creek  disproves  the  idea.  W’e  now  know  that  a part  of 
the  sand  of  the  lower  Platte  was  derived  locally  from  glacial, 
Dakota,  and  Pennsylvanian  formations,  whereas  the  Tertiary 
rocks  are  an  important  source  in  the  central  parts  of  the  state. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  a well  known  fact  that  the  source  of  the 
larger  part  of  this  sand  has  been  in  the  mountains. 

Quality  of  Platte  Sand. — The  colors  are  gray  to  mottled, 
light  pink,  depending  upon  the  relative  amounts  of  quartz  and 
feldspar.  The  size  of  the  particles  decreases  downstream  and, 
.as  a rule,  increases  with  depth.  Near  the  western  end  of  the 


112 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


State,  small  pebbles  are  a feature  at  the  surface  of  the  alluviuin^ 
Fine  sand  covers  the  surface  along  the  lower  Platte.  The* 
feldspar  content  decreases  downstream  and  increases  with* 
depth  or  with  size  of  grain.  The  highest  percent  of  silica  is 
in  the  fine  sand.  Coarse  sands  contain  the  most  AI2  O3,  K2  O^. 
Ca  O,  and  Fe2  O3.  This  is  due  to  the  feldspar. 

A sample  taken  at  Valley  shows  the  following  chemical: 
composition : 


Si  O2 

^5-35 

Fe2  O3 

.56 

AI2  O3 

8.14 

Ca  0 

.68 

Mg  0 

.16 

Na2  0 

.01 

K2  0 

2.13 

Undetermined 

2.97 

Total  100.00 


One  noticeable  feature  of  Platte  sand  is  that  it  is  gradedh 
This  condition  reduces  the  voids  to  the  minimum.  The* 
physical  properties  of  samples  collected  at  different  places- 
in  the  district  are  shown  by  tables  at  the  end  of  the  chapter.. 

Amount  of  Platte  Sand . — Platte  alluvium  is  sandy  and  thick,, 
consequently  the  quantity  of  sand  in  it  is  very  large.  In 
width  the  flood  plain  varies  from  one  and  a quarter  to  over  fif- 
teen miles  (Figure  10).  Most  ofvthe  alluvium  is  covered  with 
soil;  but  at  a short  distance  below  the  surface  fine  to  coarse- 
sand  is  found  throughout  most  of  the  bottom  land.  The- 
thickness  of  the  deposit  is  50  to  100  feet  in  the  lower  Platte,, 
and  with  few  exceptions  probably  100  to  200  feet  thick  west 
of  Valley.  The  quantity  of  sand  in  the  valleys  is  not  chang- 
ing much  at  this  time.  At  places  the  river  is  building  up  its- 
bed  by  filling  in  more  than  it  removes  whereas  at  other  places 
removal  progresses  more  rapidly  than  deposition. 

Area  of  Platte  Sand  Subject  to  Development. — Not  all  of 
the  Platte  bottom  will  produce  sand  of  commercial  grade.  Im 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


113^ 


3nuch  of  the  flood  plain  the  sand  is  covered  too  thickly  with 
soil  to  permit  of  ^pnofi.table -mini-ng;  Small  patches  of  dune 
sand  constitute  a veneer  or  covering  at  places.  Part  of  the 
Ibroad  stretch  of  bottom  land  between  Fremont  and  Grand  Is- 
land is  occupied  by  a bench  or  terrace  in  which  only  the  gravel 
'beds  can  be  worked  and  these  probably  without  profit.  No« 
•doubt  there  are  places  where  the  quality  of  sand  is  of  such  a low 
grade  as  to  entirely  preclude  dredging  or  any  other  method  of 
mining.  However,  we  are  sure  that  a very  large  quantity  of' 
.•sand  ground  awaits  future  production.  The  matter  of  favorable 
docations  is  the  largest  factor  at  present  and  not  “sand  in  sight,” 
•since  only  a very  small  fraction  of  the  land  subject  to  produc- 
tion is  being  worked.  One  very  significant  fact  is  that  sand 
■production  is  developing  westward  along  the  Platte  parallelling 
the  growth  of  industry  in  that  part  of  the  state. 

Commercial  Movements  of  Platte  Sand. — The  sand  finds  a 
market  in  a number  of  cities : Omaha  and  Lincoln  are 
the  principal  consumers  of  the  shipped  product.  Cities 
and  towns  near  the  river  are  supplied  without  shipment. 

The  dredges  are  located  with  respect  to  railroads  and  mar- 
kets. They  are  distributed  on  raih'oads  as  follows:  Rock 

Island  i;  Missouri  Pacific  2;  Northwestern  2;  Union  Pacific  3; 
and  the  Burlington  4.  The  production  is  widely  distributed 
'Over  these  systems,  for  rai‘road,  country,  and  municipal  con- 
sumption. It  goes  w'estwuird  on  the  Northwestern,  Union 
Pacific,  and  the  Burlington  to  north  central,  central,  and  the 
•.south  central  parts  of  Nebraska.  It  is  carried  by  the  Rock  Is- 
land to  Des  Moines  and  intermediate  ])oints.  fi'he  Burlington 
•ships  over  its  main  line  to  all  towns  along  the  route  as  far  as 
‘Creston,  Iowa,  and  over  the  Keokuk  and  Western  lyine  to  all 
towns  as  far  east  as  Grand  River,  Iowa.  Platte  sand  is  used 
.'generally  throughout  southwestern  Iowa  where  it  is  stored  at 
most  towns  for  local  use.  'fhe  shii)inent  to  Kansas  and 
.Missouri  is  over  lines  of  the  Burlington  and  Missouri  Pacific. 

That  sand  has  become  an  iiu])ortant  freight  commodity  is 
♦evidenced  by  the  fact  that  several  cars,  and  sometimes  whole 


lU 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


trains  of  it  are  seen  in  the  freight  yards  at  division  points^ 
'The  amount  of  Platte  sand  shipped  in  comparison  with  the- 
total  production  of  the  state,  is  rapidly  increasing. 

Bank  Sand  Along  the  Lower  Platte. — At  several  localities- 
are  pockets  of  fine  light-colored  sand  intermixed  with  grades- 
of  darker  color.  This  sand  lies  below  the  loess  and  at  places 
under  the  till.  The  light  colored  sand  shows  evidence  of 

water  deposition,  while  some  of  the  other  deposits  evince  their 
aeolian  origin.  Quite  pure  sand  occurs  one  fourth  mile  west 
of  the  Rock  Isand  Station  at  Southbend  (Specimen  43)  and  at 
the  National  Stone  Company  quarry,  two  miies  northeast  of 
Louisville.  Perhaps  neither  of  these  pockets  is  large 
enough  to  warrant  working,  however,  even  if  the  strippings 
were  not  thick.  Certain  persons  have  thought  that  the  pro^ 
duct  might  be  used  in  glass  making. 

Coarse  bank  sand  and  gravel  of  glacial  and  Cretaceous  age  is; 
mined  at  a number  of  pits  which  are  described  at  another 
place  in  this  report. 

Production  in  V/ahoo  Valley. — A broad  stretch  of  countr}r 
lying  east  of  Wahoo  and  extending  from  between  Morse  Bluff 
and  Cedar  Bluffs  on  the  north  to  a point  a few  miles  northeast 
of  Ashland  is  underlaid  with  sand  and  gravel  suitable  for  build- 
ing purposes,  but  usually  covered  with  loess  to  a depth  of  20' 
feet  or  more.  The  sand  is  fine  above  (Specimen  46)  and 
coarse  below.  Wahoo  Creek  has  cut  into  this  sand  plain  at 
places  and  at  a few  of  these  points  pits  are  being  operated. 
There  are  four  or  five  such  pits  in  the  vicinity  of  Wahoo  from 
which  sand  (Specimens  47,  48)  is  mined  for  local  use  and  for 
shipment.  The  largest  one  of  these  (Figure  52)  is  in  the  east 
part  of  the  city  and  probably  300  yards  from  the  Union  Pacific 
station.  The  opening,  located  on  the  vahey-side,  is  subcircu- 
lar in  form,  about  200  ft.  across  and  worked  to  a maximum 
depth  of  about  30  ft.  The  sand  and  gravel  extend  north- 
westward along  the  slope,  westward  under  the  city  and  prob- 
ably under  the  valley  to  the  east.  In  all  they  occupy  a very 
large  area  in  this  part  of  the  district.  Apparently  they  form  a 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


115 


Fig-,  52  Sand  and  Gravel  Pit,  Wahoo 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Ilfi 


Fijy.  ;),‘5.  This  view  shows  stt*atiti3d  glacial  sand  in  a railroad  cut  between  Milford  and  Pleasant  Dale 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


117 


-well-defined  gravel  train  which  extends  in  a northwest-south- 
'€ast  direction  along  an  old  glacial  drainage  way.  Unfortun- 
ately, most  of  the  gravel  is  deeply  covered  with  fine  sand,  clay, 
and  loess.  But,  notwithstanding  this  fact,  there  are  a number 
'Of  places  where  pits  might  be  opened. 

Production  in  Salt  Creek  Valley. — As  a rule  this  part  of  the 
-district  is  thickly  covered  with  clayey  till,  and  the  alluvium  is 
not  very  arenaceous.  An  underlying  sand  plain,  not  well  de- 
fined, is  exposed  at  the  heads  of  a few  tributaries,  as  between 
Denton  and  Berks  and  south  of  Martel.  Formerly,  a large 
local  and  railroad  sand  supply  was  obtained  from  this  source  in 
pits  located  a few  miles  southwest  of  Denton.  Of  the  five  pits 
formerly  worked  here,  on^y  one  is  operated  at  this  time,  and 
its  production  is  for  local  use.  The  production  from  other  pits 
in  the  southern  part  of  Lancaster  county  has  not  assumed 
more  than  local  importance. 

Recently  a fine  building  sand  (Specimen  66)  was  exposed  in  a 
•deep  railroad  cut  on  the  Burlington  railroad,  near  the  head  of 
Middle  Creek,  l^etween  Pleasant  Dale  and  Milford  (Figure  53). 
A thick  covering  of  loess  and  till  will  preclude  any  possibility 
•of  working  this  deposit  economically. 

Friab’e  Dakota  sand  stone  outcrops  at  a number  of  places 
in  the  district  (Specimens  50,  51).  It  is  worked  in  a limited 
way  for  local  use  near  Davey,  Ceresco,  and  Prairie  Home. 
Two  pits  about  one  and  a half  miles  east  of  Prairie  Home 
were  also  operated  several  years  ago. 


GRAVEL  IN  THE  DAKOTA  FORMATION 

This  occurs  at  several  places  aTng  the  Platte  between  South 
Bend  and  Cullom  Station,  but  in  three  principal  areas,  one 
being  located  mi’e  west  of  Cedar  Creek,  another  3)^  miles 
southeast  of  Richhekl  and  the  third  south  of  the  Platte  and 
about  midway  between  Cedar  Creek  and  Cullom. 

Formerly  these  deposits  were  thought  to  be  of  glacial  age, 
ibut  Fisher  and  Gould  proved  conclusively  that  they  are  a phase 


118 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


J, WOODWORTH  PIT 

2. PRKINS-SPERRMRN 

3,  LOWER  VAN  COURT 
i-,  UPPER  VANCOURT 

y 

y-'yf  I '/'  ^ 

'£i, 


Fig-.  54.  Outline  showing  the  arrangement  of  gravel  pits  formerly  worked 

southeast  of  Richfield. 


Fig.  55.  View  of  the  Upper  Van  Court  Gravel  Pit 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


11^ 


of  the  Dakota.  The  gravel  bodies  lie  near  the  base  of  the  Da- 
kota formation,  rising  20  to  75  ft.  in  it  at  placs.  The  base  of 
the  Dakota  in  this  part  of  the  state  rests  in  an  old  Pennsylvan- 
ian valley  and  on  a very  uneven  surface,  as  has  been  shown.  The 
lowest  part  of  the  old  valley  seems  to  nearly  parallel  the  Platte. 
In  it  were  laid  down  the  coarse  channel  deposits  now  known  as 
gravel  and  pebbT  rock.  The  river  which  occupied  this  course 
•probably  flowed  westward.  The  old  gravel  train,  when  intact, 
extended  from  a point  ten  miles  or  more  southeast  of  Richfleld,. 
to  and  beyond  Cullom  and  Cedar  Creek  and  thence  westward 
between  Meadow  and  Louisville.  Erosion  removed  the  gravel 
to  the  east  and  a'ong  most  of  the  val'ey,  leaving  only  the  rem- 
nants which  we  now  see  as  gravel  bodies.  The  western  ter* 
minus  of  the  gravel  train  has  not  been  determined. 

Viewed  in  another  way,  we  may  say  that  the  Platte,  during 
its  later  history,  has  lowered  its  course  in  and  through  this 
gravel  for  several  miles  in  length,  leaving  on'y  a few  of  the 
old  meander-fi  \s  and  outliers  of  graveh 

Probably  most  of  the  accessi1:>T  gravel  has  been  located,  yet 
systematic  prospecting  may  reveal  new  locations.  -That  the 
gravel  extends  eastward  from  the  area  of  production  southeast 
of  Richfieul  is  known,  bul:  the  lack  of  transportation  faci  ities 
there  makes  production  for  railroad  and  city  use  impossible. 
Thick  stripping  is  the  greatest  hindrance  to  production. 

Producticn  South  of  Richiielcl. — Mining  l)egan  here  about 
twenty  years  ago.  fldie  Spearman  switch  was  run  from  near 
Springfield  to  the  gravel  deposits  and  a'large  'imestone  cjuarry. 
Four  large  gravel  pits  were  worked  ; they  are  known  as  the 
Parkins  and  S])earman  , Woodworth  ,Up])er  Van  Court  and  the 
Lower  Van  Court  ])its  (Figure  54). 

Two  factors  have  forced  the  abandonment  of  these  workings: 
first,  the  stri])ping  has  become  gradually  thicker  as  work  ex- 
tended into  the  slopes;  and  second,  the  long  railroad  s])ur  has 
not  been  ke])t  in  good  repair.  The  (juantity  of  unmined  gravel 
seems  large,  but  unfavorably  located. 


120 


NEBRASKA.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


The  Parkins  and  Spearman  pit  was  abandoned  several  yearsr 
ago  and  the  track  leading  to  it  removed.  The  production  from 
this  source  was  very  large. 

The  Upper  Van  Court  pit  (Figure  55)  is  located  east  of  the 
north  terminus  of  the  switch.  The  opening  is  200x300  ft.  in 
size.  The  section  shows  10  to  12  feet  of  gravel  which 
is  overlaid  by  8 to  13  feet  of  sand  and  rusty  sandstone,  6 to 
■8  inches  of  glacial  material  and  10  to  15  ft.  of  loess-like  subsoil. 
Both  the  gravel  and  sand  were  mined  for  shipment.  Loading 
was  by  scraper  and  trap. 

The  product  was  screened  and  used  for  roofing  in  Omaha, 
Lincoln.  Nebraska  City,  and  Piattsmouth.  In  all,  the  pit  was 
■operated  15  or  16  years. 


Fig-.  56.  View  in  the  lower  Van  Court  Gravel  Pit. 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICT 


121 


The  other  pit,  owned  by  Mr.  Van  Court,  is  southeast  of  this 
one  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  ravine.  It  is  200x250;  ft  in 
size  of  opening.  The  gravel  and  sand  are  15  to  18  ft.  in  depth 
(Figure  56)  and  overlaid  by  a pebble  rock  4 ft.  thick.  The  pit 
when  last  worked  produced  about  half  sand  and  half  gravel. 
Then  150  cars  a year  were  shipped  from  the  two  pits.  Loading 
here  was  by  the  same  method  as  that  employed  at  the  upper 
pit. 

The  Woodworth  pit,  formerly  owned  by  Mr.  Cooley,  pro- 
duced 400  cars  of  gravel  during  its  last  year  of  operation.  '‘  The 
gravel  here  seems  to  be  a continuation  of  that  mined  at  the 
lower  Van  Court  pit.  If  so,  the  deposit  extends  through  the 
hill  between  the  two  places. 

When  first  opened,  the  output  of  this  pit  was  hauled  to 
Springfield  in  wagons  and  there  loaded  for  shipment.  The 
opening  when  abandoned  was  150x400  ft.  in  size.  The  gravel 
bed  was  18  ft.  thick  and  overlaid  with  10  to  15  ft,  of  stripping. 
Here  and  there  in  the  gravel  were  thin  seams  of  fire  cLy  and 
pebble  rock.  The  base  of  the  pit  is  about  SO  ft.  above  the 
switch.  The  gravel  lies  on  Pennsylvanian  limestone  and  shale, 
the  eroded  surface  of  which  rises  some  30  ft.  higher  a short 
distance  to  the  west. 

The  gravel  at  the  Woodworth  i^it  was  loaded  by  wheel- 
scraper  and  a sluice  way.  It  was  screened  and  w^ashed  for 
roofing,  but  loaded  without  cleaning  when  sold  to  railroads  for 
concrete  and  ballast.  The  pit- run  brought  55c.  a yard  and  the 
best  grade  of  roofing  gravel  about  ^2.00  a yard.  Work  was 
closed  here  about  one  year  ago  after  having  continued  18  or 
20  years. 

Following  westward  from  the  Woodworth  ]iit  one  sees  more 
limestone  and  gravel.  The  Pennsylvanian  rocks  outcrop  as 
a nearly  continuous  escarpment  to  a point  southwest  of  Rich- 
field, where  the  Rock  Island  Railroad  strikes  the  bottom  land. 
Between  that  jilace  and  a point  one  mile  west  of  Meadow  sta- 
tion is  a less  bold  valloy-side  in  which  occur  Dakota  clay, 
sandstone,  and  small  bodies  of  gravel.  The  largest  known  de- 


♦fc 


122 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


One  of  the  abandoned  gravel  pits  located  west  of  C'edar  (h’eek 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


123 


posit  of  gravel  is  at  the  Wm.  Wade  pit  southwest  of  Richfield. 
This  opening  exposes  about  5 ft.  of  clay,  12  ft.  of  sand  and 
gravel  and  10  ft.  of  stripping.  It  is  north  of  the  Rock  Island 
track,  but  the  gravel  extends  northeastward  under  the  roadway. 
It  is  not  known  just  how  much  sand  and  gravel  of  economic  im- 
portance may  be  secured  at  this  place.  However,  the  condi- 
tions do  not  seem  to  warrant  the  expense  of  further  prospecting 
since  the  product  is  of  no  better  quality, than  dredged  sand. 

Cedar  Creek  Pits  — About  one  mile  west  of  the  station  are 
three  abandoned  pits  (Figure  57),  formerly  worked  by  the  8. 
H.  Atwood  and  Newell  Company  and  just  beyond  these  is  a 
pit  recently  opened  by  the  Omaha  Gravel  Company. 

The  old  pits  lie  along  the  bluff  and  to  the  south  of  the 
Burlington  railroad.  They  were  extensively  worked  some  ten 
years  ago,  but  operation  ceased  on  account  of  heavy  stripping. 
In  the  largest  pit,  farthest  east,  are  exposed  15  to  30  ft.  of  grav- 
el (Specimen  64),  coarse  below  and  fine  above.  It  is  underlaid 
by  conglomerate,  the  “peanut  rock,”  which  extends  down  to 
about  the  level  of  the  railroad  track.  This  rock  grades  latterally 
into  sansdstone.  \bove  the  gravel  is  a covering  of  glacial  and 
loess  materials  15  to  35ft.  thick  at  the  face.  The  pit  is  elong- 
ate in  form  and  about  175  yards  in  length. 

Pit  number  2 lies  just  west  of  number  1 and  near  number  3. 
The  opening  is  subcircular  in  ground  plan,  and  about  90  yards 
across.  Here  about  25  ft.  of  gravel  are  exposed  beneath  a thick 
covering  of  till  and  loess. 

The  third  pit  shows,  in  section  at  the  face,  25  ft.  of  sand  and 
gravel,  4 to  6 ft.  of  glacial  material  and  7 ft.  of  loess.  Below  the 
gravel  is  a ledge  of  Dakota  conglomerate  and  sandstone  which 
rises  12  to  15  ft.  above  the  the  railroad  spur. 

These  pits  have  supplied  a very  large  amount  of  Nebraska’s 
roofing  gravel.  The  usual  methods  of  bank-pit  mining  were 
employed.  The  loading  was  with  team  and  scraper.  The 
product  was  cleaned  and  sized  in  revolving  screens. 

A large  supply  of  gravel  remains  in  the  banks  at  these  places, 
but  it  cannot  be  profitably  worked  under  present  conditions. 


124 


NEBRASKA  GEOLCXilCAL  SURVEY 


View  of  the  Omaha  Gravel  C'ompany  plant  taken  when  operation  beg-an.  The  gravel  was  sluiced  to  a small 

bin  and  then  run  by  gravity  into  wagons. 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


125 


For  a number  of  years  it  was  thought  that  there  were  no  other 
places  where  new  pits  might  be  opened  with  profit  in  this 
vicinity,  but  during  th3  past  year  the  Omaha  Gravel  Company 
exposed  a large  body  of  sand  and  gravel  a short  distance 
from  the  abandoned  pit  No.  3.  Professor  Wm.  G.  Bishop,  of 
the  Nebraska  Wesleyan  University  describes  this  plant  and 
production  as  follows: 

Omaha  Gravel  Company  Pit — This  is  located  just  west  of 
the  Atwood,  Newell  Company  pits.  It  is  semi-circular  in  form, 
about  one  hundred  eighty  feet  in  length,  and  when  the  writer 
visited  it  early  in  October,  had  been  worked  back  in  the  center 
to  a depth^  of  forty  feet.  The  gravel  will  average  about  forty 
feet  in  thickness,  and  is  overlaid  by  four  feet  of  stripping  com- 
posed of  glacial  and  loess  deposits.  The  stripping  gradually 
increases  in'  thickness  toward  the  south,  but  less  rapidly  than 
at  most  points  along  the  bluffs.  Just  below  the  stripping  and 
lying  on  the' gravel  is  a ledge  of  conglomerate,  averaging  one 
foot  in  thickness.  This  rock  is  broken  by  means  of  picks  and 
removed  by  scrapers  to  a nearby  dump. 

The  gravel  is  loose  enough  to  be  removed  with  scrapers 
without  plowing.  When  the  pit  was  first  opened,  its  product 
was  dumped  from  scrapers  into  a trap  (Pig.  58),  washing 
through  a long  sluice  to  a screen  where  the  gravel  and  sand 
were  separated,  the  gravel  dropping  into  a bin  conveniently  lo- 
cated for  loading  and  the  sand  conveyed  to  a dump  beyond. 
The  gravel  of  this  bin  was  loaded  into  wagons  and  hauled 
three-fourths  of  a mile  to  the  Atwood-Newell  switch.  During 
the  past  summer  the  Burlington  railroad  built  a spur  to  the  west 
side  of  the  pit.  This  track,  runs  along  the  foot  of  the  bluffs 
and  is  about  sixteen  feet  below  the  floor  of  the  pit.  A slight 
change  in  the  method  of  conveying  the  gravel  and  sand  from 
the  pit  to  cars  was  then  made  (Figure  59).  The  gravel  is  now 
dumped  into  the  trap  from  which  it  is  elevated  sixteen  feet 
by  a cup  conveyor  to  a board  sluice,  at  the  head  of  which 
several  streams  of  water  are  running  from  pipes  above.  The 
volume  of  water  is  sufficient  to  carry  the  gravel  rapidly  along 
luice  to  a point  just  above  the  car,  where  smaller  streams 


126 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fi^.  59.  Omaha  Gravel  Company’s  Plant,  Cedar  Creek 


t»RODtrCTl6N  BY  blSTRlCTS 


1^7 


of  water  play  on  the  gravel  as  it  passes  over  a screen.  Here 
the  gravel  and  sand  are  separated ; the  former,  being  thoroughly 
washed,  is  dropped  into  a chute  leading  to  a car  below,  and 
the  sand  and  water  pass  through  a chute  to  a car  beyond. 
This  method  of  loading  economizes  time  and  labor. 

The  water  used  in  the  sluice  way  is  obtained  from  the 
alluvial  sands  and  gravels.  It  is  lifted  by  a gasoline  engine 
and  a duplex  pump.  From  them  a large  water  main  is  run 
across  the  side  track  where  it  is  connected  with  sixteen  points, 
placed  about  five  feet  apart  and  extending  into  the  ground  to  a 
depth-  of  twenty-two  feet.  The  pump  draws  the  water  from 
these  points  into  the  main  at  the  rate  of  five  hundred  gallons  per 
minute  and  forces  it  from  the  main  through  smaller- pipes  lead- 
ing to  the  sluice. 

A working  force  of  ten  men  and  three  teams  is  employed 
at  this  pit.  Some  of  the  employes  live  with  their  families  in 
tents  and  shacks  located  near  by. 

The  capacity  of  the  plant  is  five  cars  daily.  The  gravel  is 
shipped  to  Omaha,  Lincoln,  and  Iowa  points  where  it  is  used 
tor  roofing  and  concrete  work.  The  sand  (Specimen  53)  is 
used  for  plastering  and  engine  purposes.” 

The  Cullom  Gravel  Pit. — This  (Fig.  60)  is  located  south  of 
the  Burlington  railroad  and  about  midway  between  the  Cedar 
Creek  and  Cullom  stations.  It  is  worked  now  for  the  third 
time,  having  been  abandoned  twice.  Mr.  Hedges,  the  present 
operator,  has  installed  an  engine  and  other  equipment  neces- 
sary for  hydraulic  working.  The  gravel  is  coarse,  round,  and 
dirty  (Specimen  54),  but  in  reality  it  is  cleaned  during  the 
process  of  mining  and  thus  it  becomes  a desirable  product  for 
roofing,  driveways,  and  platforms.  The  production  during  the 
past  year  has  reached  15  cars  a week.  The  opening  is  a double 
pit;  one  part  of  it  90x200  ft.  and  the  other  270x420  ft.  in  area. 
An  average  section  here  shows  : 


Soil,  loess  and  till 

Sandstone 

Gravel 

Sand 


o to  15  ft. 
10  to  25  ft. 
20  to  25  ft. 
3 to  5 ft. 


Limestone  and  shale,  exposed  6 to  8 ft. 


Fig.  60.  Cullom  Gravel  Pit.  Photo  by  E.  G.  Woodruff 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


129 


Fig.  61,  Section  of  Cullom  Gravel  Pit 

The  section  varies  much,  depending  on  the  place  where  it 
is  taken.  The  gravel  stands  as  a nearly  vertical,  massive  front 
(Fig.  6i).  The  cap  of  sandstone  makes  hydraulic  working 
by  tunneling  possible.  Though  not  entirely  free  from  danger 
to  the  workmen  the  gravel  is  washed  from  the  tunnels  by 
hydraulic  methods  and  is  then  carried  through  sluice  ways  to 
the  cars.  It  is  probable  that  a large  amount  of  gravel  may  yet 
be  removed  from  this  place  by  the  method  now  employed. 

THE  NEMAHA  DISTRICT. 

Alluvium  along  the  Big  Nemaha  is  clayey,  consequently  ^ts 
supply  of  sand  is  small.  Probably  the  production  from  this 
source  is  confined  to  15  or  20  small  pits  and  openings  along  the 
valley  bottom.  The  source  of  the  local  supply  in  the  district  is 
the  bank  pits  in  which  glacial  deposits  are  worked.  Most  of  the 
pits  are  small,  yet  two  or  three  of  them  have  supplied  sand  for 
shipment. 

Johnson  County  has  a number  of  small  pits  near  Sterling, 
Tecumseh  (Specimens  55,  56),  and  Elk  Creek  (Specimen  57). 
Very  little  sand  is  shipped  into  this  county. 


130 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fijr.  (52.  Sand  Pit  near  Salem 


PRODUDTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


131 


In  Pawnee  County  the  larf/est  production  is  from  openings 
near  Pawnee  City.  The  pro-duct  here  is  dirty  and  discolored 
(Specimen  6o),  but  better  suited  for  the  usual  purposes 
than  is  generally  supposed.  Several  sand  pits  are  operated 
near  Table  Rock  (Specimens  58,  59).  One  of  them  may  become 
a source  of  railroad  supply  if  the  quantity  proves  sufficient. 

Most  of  Richardson  County’s  production  is  at  Salem  (Figure 
62)  and  Falls  City.  The  largest  pits  at  Salem  are  about  one 
mile  north  of  the  station.  Formerly  the  Burlington  rail- 
road shipped  from  this  source  (Specimen  61).  Hon.  R.  E. 
Grinstead  has  supplied  the  survey  with  samples  from  the  place. 

The  Wagner  and  Bramm  pits  supply  Falls  City  with  about 
600  wagon  loads  a year.  They  are  south  of  the  river  and  two 
miles  from  the  city. 

There  are  small  productions  one  mile  west  of  Humboldt,  one 
mile  north  of  Verdon,  and  at  Dawson. 

Platte  sand  is  increasing  in  shipment  to  this  district.  Falls 
City  and  Humboldt  are  its  largest  consumers. 

THE  BIG  BLUE  DISTRICT. 

There  are  two  pricipal  sources  of  sand  in  this  district,  the 
glacio-fluvial  sand  plain  and  the  alluvium  of  trunk  and  tribu- 
tary valleys.  Most  of  the  right  hand  tributaries  of  the  river 
head  in  the  Loess  Plains.  They  have  deepened  their  courses 
in  the  loess  and  underlying  sand,  exposing  the  latter  along  the 
valley-sides.  Nearly  all  these  small  streams  carry  sand  during 
their  flood  stages,  dropping  the  load  along  their  beds,  making 
sand  deposits  which  are  a noticeable  feature  especially  between 
Crete  and  DeWitt.  The  alluvium  of  the  trunk  Hream  varies  in 
the  quantity  of  its  sand  content,  being  at  some  places  clayey, 
and  at  others  very  arenaceous.  There  is  some  production  from 
this  source  at  Crete,  Beatrice,  and  Wymore.  Except  at  the 
points  named  most  of  the  output  of  the  district  comes  from  the 
sand  plain  extending  from  near  Ulysses  and  York  southward 
across  the  district  following  down  the  main  valley  and  into  and 
out  of  the  tributary  valleys.  This  sand  plain  where  exposed 
lies  below  the  loess  and  is  better  defined  in  the  west  part  of  the 


132 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


basin  than  on  the  east. 

There  are  many  bank  pits  in  this  district.  At  Ulysses  there 
has  been  considerable  production  for  several  years.  The  sand 
is  clean,  angular,  and  coarse.  It  is  mined  for  local  use  and  for 
shipment.  The  principal  pit  is  i%  miles  southeast  of  the  town. 
There  are  other  openings  in  this  vicinity  and  the  production  is 
limited  only  by  the  demand. 

York  has  four  or  five  bank  pits  at  the  edge  of  the  city.  They 
are  the  source  of  the  larger  part  of  the  local  supply  (Specimens 
63,  64),  the  rest  coming  from  the  Platte  dredges. 

Milford  has  a number  of  small  pits,  at  least  two  of  which 
produce  some  of  our  best  concrete  sand  (Specimen  65).  It 
is  in  these  deposits  that  gold  was  found  to  exist  in  small 
quantities. 

In  the  valley  northeast  of  Sutton  are  four  or  five  openings 
from  which  the  city  receives  an  adequate  supply  of  fine  to 
coarse  sand  (Specimen  67).  The  sand  beds  extend  under 
Sutton  where  they  are  reached  in  wells. 

Professor  G.  A.  Gregory  describes  the  production  at  Crete 
as  follows : ‘‘The  sand  pit  at  the  edge  of  Crete,  south  of  town, 
is  owned  by  S.  R.  Foss.  It  furnishes  the  bu'k  of  the  material 
(Specimens  68,69)  ^^r  sidewalks  and  cement  blocks  in  the  city. 
About  1700  yards  have  been  used  during  the  past  two  years 
from  40  square  rods,  and  the  bottom  of  the  deposit  has  not  been 
reached  at  a depth  of  10  feet.  The  product  is  worth  90c.  a yard 
on  the  market  in  Crete.” 

Small  pits  are  worked  in  Turkey  Creek  valley.  Milligan’s 
sand  supply  is  secured  from  an  opening  three  miles  northwest- 
of  the  town. 

Sand  is  exposed  nearly  continuously  from  Whlber  (Specimen 
69)  to  DeAVitt  (Specimens  71,72),  the  best  showing  the  largest 
quantity  being  two  miles  northwest  of  DeAVitt  (Figure  16). 
The  Burlington  has  obtained  thousands  of  tons  of  coarse  sand 
from  near  AAYstern. 

At  Beatrice,  some  four  pits  supply  the  trade  (Specimens  73, 
74).  They  are  located  both  on  the  bottom  land  and  on  the 
upland,  within  a radius  of  two  miles  from  the  city. 

The  largest  production  near  AVymore  is  from  the  Markle^ 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


133 


Huston  pit  on  bottom  land  one  mile  and  a half  east  of  the  city. 
This  pit  supplies  a good  quality  of  sand  (Specimen  76),  and  the 
owners  are  planning  to  ship  the  output. 

THE  LITTLE  BLUE  DISTRICT. 

Except  the  Platte  district,  this  has  the  largest  production 
in  the  state.  The  structural  conditions  here  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  Big  Blue  Valley.  However,  the  flood  plain  is  more  sandy 
and  hence  the  alluvial  sands  have  greater  importance.  The 
source  of  these  river  sands  is  mostly  in  the  glacio-fluvial  sand 
plain  and  in  the  smaller  part  in  the  Dakota  formation.  Bank 
sands  and  river  sands  resemble  each  other  in  physical  proper- 
ties. In  fact  there  are  places,  as  at  Fairbury,  where  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  between  them. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Brickton,  some  seven  miles  south  of  Hast- 
ings, large  pits  operate  for  shipment  to  Hastings  and  elsewhere. 
The  production  is  on  the  Burlington  raih'oad  and  near  a small 
tributary  of  the  LitFe  Blue  River.  The  stream  has  removed 


The  Campbell  Sand  Pit  near  Brickton, 
Barbour 


Fig.  63. 


Photo  by  Professior  F.  H. 


134 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


much  of  the  loess  covering  at  this  place,  reducing  the  stripping 
to  a thickness  of  5 to  10  ft.  The  loading  is  with  scrapers  and 
bucket-chain  conveyors  ( Fig.  63).  The  product  of  one  of  the 
largest  pits  is  cleaned  and  sized  in  revolving  screens  as  is  shown 
by  the  figure.  The  sand  of  these  pits  is  mottled  pink  in  color, 
coarse,  and  quite  clean  (Specimen  78).  The  output  and  ship- 
ment is  large. 

Many  pits  are  operated  along  the  upper  tributaries  of  the 
Little  Blue  \"alley.  Some  sand  has  been  shipped  over  the 
North  WTstern  from  near  Davenport  and  on  the  Burlington 
from  Ayr. 

Production  at  Hebron. — The  river  sand  here  is  coarse  and 
plentifully  exposed  near  the  city  (Specimen  79),  The  glacio- 
fluvial  sand  plain  outcrops  below  the  loess  along  the  left  slope 
of  the  valley  below  Hebron.  Professor  J.  R.  Fulk  reports  thus: 
“The  Samuel  White  pit  just  east  of  the  city  is  an  important 
sand  producer.  The  sand  owned  by  Mr.  White  covers  70  acres 
to  a depth  ranging  from  12  to  40  feet.  It  is  mined  in  the 
usual  way  and  supplied  to  Hebron  and  to  the  Rock  Island 
railroad.  Recently  over  200  cars  of  this  sand  were  shipped  to 
Kansas  and  used  for  concrete  construction  by  the  Rock  Island.'’ 

There  are  many  small  pits  in  Thayer  County  producing  a 
variety  of  grades  of  sand,  most  of  which  are  supplied  to  the 
local  trade. 

In  the  Vicinity  of  Fairbury. — Here  occur  large  areas  of  sand 
and  fine  gravel  (Figure  64).  Along  Big  Sandy  Creek  near 
Alexandria  is  a thick  bed  of  coarse  sand  well  suited  for  use  in 
plastering  and  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  stone.  The 
largest  area  of  this  lies  near  the  mill  south  of  the  stream.  At 
Powell  and  extending  northward  along  the  creek  and  railroad 
for  three  or  four  miles  are  small  patches  of  gravel.  All  of 
Fairbury  is  underlaid  with  a coarse  sand  deposit  which  averages 
about  100  ft.  in  thickness.  The  sand  is  stratified,  containing 
beds  which  vary  from  fine  to  coarse  in  texture  and  from  gray 
to  mottled  flesh  and  iron  yellow  in  color.  At  most  places  the 
upper  part  of  the  deposit  is  medium  coarse,  dry,  and  stained 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS  135 

with  iron.  Glacial  bowlders,  mostly  Sioux  quartzite  and  gran- 
ite, are  embedded  in  the  sand  at  all  levels.  Small  bodies  of 
bowlder  clay  are  likewise  found  in  the  upper  beds.  The  sand  in 
the  valley  sides  lies  between  the  1320  and  1400  ft.  contours. 
It  rests  on  the  uneven  surface  of  the  Dakota  formation  and  is 
overlaid,  where  not  exposed,  by  bowlder  clay  and  loess. 

On  account  of  the  uneven  bed  rock  here  it  is  not  always  an 
easy  matter  for  one  to  determine  the  quantity  of  sand  that  may 


Fig.  64.  Outline  showing  distribution  of  sand  and  gravel  in  the  vicinity  of 

Fairbury 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fig.  G5.  Rock  Island  Sand  and  Gravel  Pit 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


ni 


be  mined  in  a given  area,  at  least  from  a surface  examination. 
The  logs  of  wells  show  that  the  deposit  is  thick  and  continuous 
at  places..  The  sands  are  thinnest  where  the  bed  rock  is 
nearest  the  surface  and  thickest  where  it  is  deepest.  This 
fact  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  by  persons  who  expect 
to  locate  a place  for  working.  Since  the  Dakota  is  exposed  here 
and  there  in  the  region,  it  is  possibT  for  the  geologist  to  trace 
its  outcrops  and  at  the  same  time  determine  the  limits  of  the 
sand  deposit.  Figure  64  shows  the  distribution  of  the  sand  as 
it  is  exposed  in  the  valley-sides. 

A favorable  feature  of  the  conditions  at  Fairbury  is  that  the 
sand  is  high  enough  above  the  railroads  to  permit  washing, 
screening  and  loading  while  moving  it  with  gravity.  The  con- 
ditions here  seem  to  warrant  more  extensive  working.  The 
sand  should  be  screened  for  the  trade  in  such  a way  as  to  supply 
several  uses.  There  is  wide  enough  range  in  the  size  of  grains 
to  produce  all  grades  from  fine  sand  to  coarse  gravel.  One 
drawback  to  this  mining  is  the  fact  that  the  product  must 
compete  with  Platte  sand  on  the  Lincoln  market  and  with  the 
Hebron  and  Brickton  sand  on  the  Hastings  market.  The  fact 
that  only  the  beds  which  contain  the  finer  sand  have  been 
opened  up  in  certain  cases  has  hurt  the  trade. 

One  of  the  largest  peaces  of  production  in  this  district  is  on 
the  Nelson  branch  of  the  Rock  Island,  three  miles  northwest  of 
the  city  (Fig.  65).  Many  thousand  yards  of  sand  (Speci- 
mens 81,86)  have  been  shipped  form  this  place.  The  pit 
lies  south  of  the  railroad  and  has  two  openings,  the  largest  being 
about  260  ft.  long.  It  is  worked  back  about  120  ft.  d'he  smaller 
pit  is  about  one  third  the  size  of  the  larger.  The  stripping  of 
soil  and  loess  varies  from  i to  10  ft.  in  thickness.  About 
20  to  25  ft.  of  sand  and  gravel  are  ex])osed  where  the  work- 
ing face  is  highest.  The  sands  are  light  to  rusty  in  color, 
plainly  stratified  and  cross  bedded.  They  are  parted  at  places 
by  thin  seams  of  clays,  'fhe  output  ranges,  in  size  of  grain, 
from  plastering  sand  to  medium  coarse  gravel.  Production 
has  fallen  off  during  the  past  few  years  because  of  an  increase 


138 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

in  the  stripping  and  because  of  the  finding  of  more  suitable 
sands  for  railroad  purposes  at  other  places. 

Most  of  the  sand  used  at  Fairbury  comes  from  pits  just 
northeast  of  the  city  (Specimens  82,  84).  In  many  cases  the 
local  supply  is  obtained  from  excavations  for  cellars  and  foun- 
dations. A part  of  it  comes  from  the  river  (Specimen  46). 

The  shipment  from  small  local  pits  is  of  little  importance; 
the  product  goes  mostly  to  Lincoln  where  its  market  price  is 
a little  higher  than  that  of  the  Platte  sand. 

A pit  one  mile  west  of  the  Burlington  station  at  Kesterson 
was  operated  for  many  years  for  railroad  use  (Specimens  85, 
86).  The  main  opening  is  about  200  yards  long  and  is  worked 
back  a distance  of  from  50  to  loo  ft.  A mantle  of  loess,  grad- 
ually increasing  in  thickness  in  the  hill,  is  the  principal  cause 
for  the  decrease  in  output.  Loading  here  formerly  was  by  team 
and  scraper.  It  is  now  by  hand  shovel  . 

There  is  a sand  pit  about  midway  between  Endicott  and 
Steele,  from  which  the  product  is  loaded  over  a trap  and 
shipped  on  the  St.  Joe  and  Grand  Island  railroad.  The  sand 
here  is  of  glacial  origin  and  overlies  brick  clay.  Both  products 
are  mined  and  marketed. 

THE  REPUBLICAN  DISTRICT. 

Sand  production  here  comes  from  the  Ogalalla  formation, 
the  glacio-fluvial  sand  plain  and  from  the  alluvium.  Further 
research  may  show  that  at  least  a part  of  the  sand  plain  is  of 
Pliocene  age. 

The  Republican  river  alluvium  is  sandy,  and  fine  to  coarse 
in  texture.  It  is  separated  in  some  places  by  clay  into  upper 
and  lower  parts.  The  thickness  of  the  alluvium  in  the  trunk 
valley  ranges  from  10  to  50  ft.,  averaging  about  25  ft.  The  width 
of  the  flood  plain  is  one  to  two  miles,  including  the  low  teraces. 
The  gravelly  base  of  the  alluvium  extends  under  the  terraces. 
There  is  no  marked  difference  in  the  fineness  of  surface  sand 
from  west  to  east  as  is  the  case  with  the  Platte.  Bar  sand 
usually  is  grayish  to  pinkish  in  color.  It  is  composed  princi- 


Production  by  districts 


159 


pally  of  quartz  and  feldspar.  ‘ Most  of  the  tributary  streams 
have  sandy  beds.  Sand  draws  in  Dundy  county  may  be 
taken  as  an  example  of  these  for  the  western  part  of  the 
district  and  a sand-strewn  ravine  near  Amboy  for  the  example 
to  the  east.  In  many  cases  the  sand  wash  in  these  tributary 
valleys  is  clean  and  coarse  grained.  At  such  places  it  is  well 
suited  for  building  purposes. 

The  Ogalalla  formation  is  not  an  important  source  of  pro- 
duction. However,  its  coarse  materials  may  be  used  more 
generally  when  the  country  in  which  they  occur  is  further  de- 
veloped. While  river  sands  are  mined  to  some  extent  in  each 
county  their  relative  importance  is  greatest  in  the  western  part 
of  the  district.  Throughout  the  Republican  Valley  the  bank 
sand  is  used  for  concrete  construction  and  the  river  sand  for 
plaster. 

The  sand  supply  in  Dundy  county  comes  from  sand  draws 
(Specimen  90)  and  from  the  river  bed  (Specimen  89).  In 
Chase  County,  the  Ogalalla  formation  is  the  principal  source. 
Formerly  sand  and  gravel  of  this  age  were  mined  in  pits 
located  about  two  miles  west  of  Wauneta  and  used  for  ballast 
on  the  Burlington  railroad. 

Mr.  James  O’Connell,  County  Superintendent  of  Hitchcock 
County,  describes  the  deposits  in  the  vicinity  of  Trenton  thus: 
“There  is  a large  sand  bank  one  mile  east  of  town  and  another 
three-quarters  of  a mile  to  the  northwest.  The  deposit  at  each 
place  overlies  the  Pierre  shale.  It  varies  from  ten  to  fifty  feet 
in  thickness  and  underlies  much  of  the  upland  in  the  country, 
outcropping  along  the  valleys.  It  consists  usually  of  fine  sand 
on  top,  grading  to  coarse  gravel  at  the  base.  A distinct  bed 
of  dry  coarse  gravel,  ten  to  twenty  feet  thick,  is  exposed 
above  the  Pierre  shale,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river.” 

There  are  several  small  j)its  in  Red  Willow  County. 
McCook  uses  river  and  bank  sands  (Specimen  92).  Two 
large  pits,  one  northeast  of  the  city  and  located  in  Furnas 
County  (Figure  18)  and  the  other  northwest  of  the  city  and 
in  Red  Willow  County,  su])ply  the  larger  part  of  the  market  at 
Cambridge  (Specimen  93). 


140 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


A bank  pit  about  three  miles  east  of  Arapahoe  has  been 
worked  for  over  25  years  (Specimen  94).  ^^  hen  first  opened 

it  furnished  much  of  the  sand  supply  of  Furnas  County.  The 
product  is  coarse  and  clean.  Recently,  pits  have  been  opened 
nearer  the  city.  River  sand  is  used  here  for  plastering  (Speci- 
men  95). 

Oxford  obtains  bank  sand  from  both  sides  of  the  Republican 
Valley  and  a part  of  its  supply  from  the  river  bed  (Specimen 
97).  A coarse  sand  was  recently  found  at  a point  four  miles 
east  of  Oxford  { Specimen  97).  It  is  to  be  worked  for  local  use. 

Professor  J.  C.  Jensen  furnishes  the  accompanying  descrip- 
tion of  the  sands  near  Beaver  City,  Furnas  County. — “There 
is  an  abundance  of  sand  in  this  locality,  most  of  it  being 
found  in  banks.  A bank  pit  southwest  of  the  city  affords 
most  of  the  local  supply  (Specimen  98).  It  is  owned  by  Mr. 
Carter  who  sel  s the  product  at  25c.  a load  at  the  pit.  The 
sand  bed  is  five  feet  thick  and  probably  extends  for  a long 
distance  into  the  hill  side.  Stripping  is  ten  feet  thick.  There 
are  other  sand  workings  in  this  vicinity  but  none  of  them 
produce  gravel.  Other  towns  in  the  county  have  sand  supplies 
similar  to  ours.“ 

There  are  two  sand  pits  near  Orleans,  three  near  Alma,  and 
two  at  Republican. 

Superintendent  Ed.  IM.  Short  of  Bloomington  gives  the  lo- 
cations of  fourteen  pits  in  Franklin  County  which  supply  the 
town  and  country  demands.  They  are  mostly  north  of  the 
river  and  at  the  edge  of  the  upland.  The  sand  lies  beneath  the 
loess.  One  of  the  pits  is  in  Bloomington  and  three  or  four  of 
them  are  from  two  to  three  miles  north  of  Franklin. 

Red  Cloud  secures  a coarse  sand  from  bank  pits  north  of  the 
city  (Specimen  100 ).  The  river  sand  here,  as  at  Franklin,  is  too 
fine  for  use  except  as  a filler  and  for  plaster  (Specimen  99I. 

Superior  obtains  her  coarse  sand  for  50  c.  a load  from  a pit 
about  2 miles  northwest  of  the  city,  and  fine  plastering  sand 
from  the  river.  Several  small  gravel  areas  occur  four  miles 
northeast  of  the  city. 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


141 


THE  WHITE  RIVER  DISTRICT. 

Production  in  ^this  part  of  the  state  is  largely  a matter  of 
the  future,  except  at  Chadron  and  Crawford.  The  district  is 
only  sparsely  settled,  consequently  the  demand  is  very  small. 

Gravel  deposits  in  the  White  River  and  Loup  Fork  beds  can 
be  utilized  when  needed,  but  as  yet  they  have  hardly  become 
a resource. 

Two  sand  pits  are  worked  on  the  Northwestern  railroad 
about  one  mile  west  of  Chadron.  The  product  is  used  mostly 
for  bedding  stock  cars. 


SAND  SIFTING.  TABLE  1. 


SAND  SIFTING,  TABLE  2. 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


143 


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SAND  SIFTING,  TABLE  4. 


PRODUCTION  BY  DISTRICTS 


GENERAL 

Bank  glacial  sand.  Pit  north  of  town 

Wagoner  pit 

Fine  bank  sand 

Coarse  bank  sand 

Swesay  pit,  1 mile  south  of  town 

From  C.B  & Q.  cut  3^4  east  of  Milford 

Glacio-fluvial  sand 

Fine  sand  of  Foss  pit 

Coarse  sand,  Foss  pit 

Ferguson  pit 

Fred  Donovan  pit 

Pit  4 miles  west  of  town 

H. A. Bales  pit,  sand  from  Dakota  Form. 

Bozart  pit 

Coarse  bank  sand 

Markle-Huston  pit 

Moulding  sand 

Glacio-fluvial  sand 

Coarse  gravel  sand,  pit  east  of  city 

Fine  sand.  Rock  Island  pit 

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USES  OP  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


147 


CHAPTER  IV. 

USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL. 

The  following'  outline  shows  some  of  the  leading  uses  of  sand 
and  gravel  in  Nebraska  and  adjacent  states. 

I.  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 

A.  Mortar  and  concrete. 

1.  Plaster  and  masonry. 

2.  Culverts,  abutments,  and  bridges. 

3.  Piers. 

4.  Dams. 

5.  Irrigation  ditclies. 

6.  Water  pipes. 

7.  Tanks  and  reservoirs. 

8.  Sewers. 

9.  Subways  and  tunnels. 

10.  Monolithic  foundations  and  walls. 

11.  Monolithic  houses. 

. 12.  Artificial  stone. 

13.  Sand-cement  brick. 

14.  Fence  posts. 

15.  Sidewalks. 

16.  Pavements. 

17.  Curbs  and  gutters. 

P).  Roofing. 

C.  Street  and  road  making  (not  concrete). 

D.  Ballast  and  surfacing  railroad  beds. 

K.  Sand-lime  brick. 

II.  ENGINE  SAND. 

III.  BEDDING  SAND. 

IV.  MOLDING  SAND.  : 

V.  GLASS  SAND. 


148 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


VI.  MINOR  USES: 

A.  Sanding  walks. 

B.  Sanding  wood. 

C.  AVood  working. 

D.  Fire  and  furnace  sand. 

E.  Filtration  and  sanitation. 

F.  In  the  poultry  yard. 

It  should  be  apparent,  from  the  above  outline,  that  a full 
discussion  of  the  sand  and  gravel  industries  cannot-  be  given 
in  this  chapter.  The  various  sand-working  industries  are  as- 
suming such  importance  as  to  require  special  reports  from 
the  survey.  This  chapter  will  serve  only  as  an  introduction  to 
subjects  a few  of  which  are  to  be  treated  in  subsequent 
bulletins. 

MORTAR  AND  CONCRETE. 

These  materials  though  differing  in  their  typical  forms  are 
not  distinguishable  at  times.  Alortar  is  an  intimate  hydrated 
mixture  of  sand  and  lime  or  of  sand  and  cement.  Concrete  is 
cement  mortar  to  which  is  added  an  intimate  mixture  of 
crushed  stone,  or  other  coarse  ‘Aggregate.’’  Graded  gravel 
when  used  in  such  a combination  forms  a product  which  is  on 
the  border  line  between  cement  mortar  and  concrete.  Its 
particles  are  the  fine  and  coarse  aggregate.  Time  and  cement 
are  used  for  the  purpose  of  binding  the  aggregates  into  a mass 
which  becomes  firm  by  “setting”  or  hardening.  Lime  mortar 
sets  in  the  air,  whereas  cement  mortaTs  set  in  water,  hence  the 
latter  are  said  to  be  “hydraulic.”  Concrete  is  made  in  two 
general  forms — plain  and  reinforced.  The  quantity  of  sand  and 
coarse  aggregate  required  for  a structure  of  given  strength  is 
decreased  by  reinforcement.  The  very  general  use  of  sand 
and  gravel  in  concrete  is  due  largely  to  the  great  importance 
of  Portland  cement  which  makes  the  use  of  these  materials 
possible,  especially  so  in  construction  below  ground  and  under 
water. 

Historical. — Alortar  and  concrete  construction  have  been  in 
vogue  for  many  centuries,  antedating  the  Christian  era.  No 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


149 


one  seems  to  know  just  when  and  where  they  first  came  into 
use.  The  Romans  made  concrete  as  early  as  175  B.  C.  They 
manufactured  a natural  cement  from  volcanic  materials  near 
Pozzuoli.  A surviving  and  well  known  example  of  their  early 
construction  is  the  dome  of  the  Pantheon  which  was  erected 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  It  has  a diameter  of 
142  feet  and  is  heavy  concrete  supported  on  walls  made  of 
concrete  and  brick. 

The  concrete  industry  has  assumed  importance  in  practically 
all  countries.  Its  rapid  development  within  recent  years  re- 
sulted very  largely  from  the  discovery  and  extensive  manufac- 
ture and  use  of  Portland  cement. 

The  use  of  cement  mortar  in  concrete  construction  dates 
back  only  a few  years  in  the  United  States,  beginning  about 
1820,  and  rapidly  expanding  since  1880  when  Portland  cement 
began  to  assume  importance.  This  method  of  construction  is 
so  recent  that  we  have  not  fully  developed  the  necessary 
standards  for  judging  either  the  materials  or  the  construction. 

Mortar  Sands — The  specifications  for  mortar  sand  vary 
greatly  in  different  cities,  but  the  differences  seem  to  be  due 
in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  mortar  is  used  for  various  purposes  , 
and  under  different  conditions.  Numerous  experiments  have 
been  tried  by  engineers  to  prove  the  value  of  the  various  quali- 
ties and  kinds  of  sand.  As  a result  of  these  investigations  the 
essential  features  of  mortar  sands  are  now  quite  well  known. 

A summary  of  conclusions  is  as  follows : 

1.  Fine  sand  requires  more  cement  than  coarse  sand  to, 
produce  a given  strength  of  mortar. 

2.  Graded  sands  are  more  economical,  since  they  have  the 
least  voids  and  require  the  minimum  of  cement  or  lime. 

3.  As  a rule,  a high  degree  of  angularity  and  sharpness  is 
desired  if  great  strength  is  essential,  but  this  condition 
gives  more  void  space  and  hence  requires  the  maximum 
quantity  of  lime  or  cement. 

4.  Coarse  sand  makes  the  strongest  mortar,  if  its  voids  are 
completely  filled. 


150 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


5-  Sand  containing  organic  matter  is  not  well  suited  for 
mortar  making. 

6.  The  strongest  mortar  is  made  from  sands  that  pass  the 

20-mesh  sieve  and  are  caught  on  the  30-mesh  sieve,  if 

the  voids  are  completely  filled. 

7.  Sharp  angular  sands  produce  mortar  high  in  tensile 
strength. 

8.  It  is  not  known  just  how  the  mineral  content  of  sand 
affects  the  strength  of  mortar.  Probably  the  quality  is 
best  where  the  sand  is  composed  mostly  of  quartz. 

9.  Clay  or  loam  up  to  15  per  cent  and  probably  20  per  cent 

of  the  volume  of  sand  does  not  appear  to  de- 

crease the  strength  if  a mortar  is  thoroughly  mixed, 
according  to  experiment  performed  in  Ohio. 

10.  Mortar  containing  over  10  percent  of  clay  or  loam  should 
not  be  used  under  water. 

11.  The  physical  condition  of  a sand  affects  the  readiness 
with  which  it  can  be  worked  in  mortar  making.  Fine 
sand  is  difficult  to  mix. 

There  is  no  general  agreement  concerning  the  requisites  of  a 
mortar  sand.  The  following  specifications  are  introduced  for 
the  purposes  of  discussion. 

“All  sand  used  for  mortar  should  pass  a No.  10  sieve  and 
80  per  cent  of  it  should  be  retained  upon  a No.  74  sieve. 
It  should  be  a silicious  sand,  as  sharp  as  can  be  obtained  within 
reasonable  limits  of  cost.  It  should  be  free  from  ail  vegetable 
or  organic  matter,  and  should  not  contain  more  than  10  per 
cent  by  weight  of  clay  or  loamy  material.” 

The  above  specifications,  written  by  Professor  Eno,  after  he 
had  tested  all  of  the  properties  specified,  represents  about  the 
present  demand  for  a mortar  sand,  except  that  many  operators 
now  pay  less  attention  to  the  degree  of  sharpness  and  empha- 
size the  graded  condition. 

The  question  that  arises  at  this  time  is,  whether  or  not 
Platte  sands,  so  generally  used,  are  suited  for  mortar.  The 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


151 


following  from  City  Engineer  Grant  of  Lincoln,  will  clear  up 
this  point : 

“Platte  River  sand  is  not  generally  considered  a first  class 
mortar  or  concrete  sand  according  to  most  specifications.  It 
is  clean,  smooth  and  round  to  angular,  but  not  sharp.  How- 
ever, it  is  becoming  known  that  form  and  sharpness  have  been 
over-emphasized.  Platte  sand,  when  carefully  selected  and 
combined  produces  a good  mortar.” 

Other  practical  engineers  have  assured  the  writer  that  com- 
mercial Platte  sand  is  especially  well  adapted  for  mortar  mak- 
ing. The  fine  sand  should  be  avoided. 

Sand  is  used  in  lime  mortar  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  shrinkage  and  cracking;.,  and  secondarily  on  account 
of  economy.  It  is  cheaper  than  lime.  It  is  used  in  cement 
mortar  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  decreasing  the  cost  of 
construction. 

Mixing  and  Proportions. — The  quality  of  a mortar  depends 
more  on  the  thoroughness  of  mixing  than  is  usually  thought. 
“The  mixing  should  continue  until  the  sand  grains  are  all 
coated  with  a thin  film  of  lime  or  cement,  as  the  case  may  be, 
and  until  the  voids  are  filled.”  Each  kind  of  sand  and  cement 
influences  the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  make  the  strongest 
mortar.  Too  much  or  too  little  water  greatly  reduces  the 
strength  of  the  mortar.  In  general,  fine  sands  and  loamy 
sands  require  more  water  than  do  coarser  and  cleaner  sands. 
Natural  cements  require  more  water  than  Portland  cements. 
Mortars  of  i sand  and  i cement  require  more  water  than 
mortars  having  greater  proportions  of  sand.”  “Where  mortar 
is  placed  where  it  will  get  very  little  additional  moisture  over 
that  used  in  mixing  it,  sufficient  water  should  be  used  to  thor- 
oughly hydrate  the  lime.”^ 

The  amount  of  labor  required  in  mixing  varies  with  the  phy- 
sical condition  of  the  sand  and  with  the  proportions  and  degree 
of  perfection  desired.  “Some  sands  are  all  fine,  some  all 
coarse,  while  many  are  graded  from  very  fine  to  coarse.” 

Eno.  Uses  of  Hydarulic  Cement,  Fourth  Series.  Bulletin  2.  Ohio  Geological  Survey 


152 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Consequently,  the  proper  proportions  of  sand  to  the  cement  or 
lime  should  vary  in  the  mixture,  with  the  nature  of  the  sand. 
This  means  that  the  builder  should  know  the  mechanical  analy- 
sis of  the  sand  employed  if  the  best  possible  mixtures  are  to 
be  made  and  standard  work  is  to  be  done. 

The  methods  of  making  the  different  kinds  of  mortar  are 
well  known,  consequently  they  are  not  described  in  this  report. 

The  proportions  of  the  mortar-making  materials  are  ex- 
pressed by  figures.  For  example,  i of  cement  to  5 of  sand  by 
volume  is  designated  thus — i 15. 

The  proportions  of  materials  used  in  mortar  are  about  as 
follows : 

1.  In  lime  mortar  i :2  and  i 

2.  In  natural  cement  mortar,  from  i :2  to  i :5- 

3.  In  Portland  cement  mortar,  from  i :i  to  1:6. 

4.  In  lime-cement  . mortar,  from  i :3  to  i :5,  in  Portland 
cement  mixtures  in  which  the  lime  does  not' exceed  10  per  cent 
of  the  cement  by  volume.  In  i :2  mixtures,  lime  equal  to  20 
or  25  per  cent  by  volume  of  the  Portland  cement  may  be  used. 
The  addition  of  lime  to  a cement  mixture  increases  plasticity, 
and  thus  facilitates  plastering. 

Plaster. — This  is  used  on  walls  and  ceilings  of  houses:  on 
exterior  surfaces  and  in  making  the  impervious  lining  of  caves, 
reservoirs,  etc.  It  is  permeable  or  impermeable,  and  rough  or 
smooth  according  to  the  character  of  the  sand  and  the  propor- 
tion of  lime.  Gypsum  (Plaster  of  Paris)  plaster  is  light 
colored  and  hard  , consequently  it  is  well  adapted  for  the  in- 
terior finish  of  walls  and  ceilings.  Cement  plasters  are  dark, 
hard,  and  very  strong  and  impervious  when  not  too  lean,  but 
are  not  readily  employed  on  walls  and  ceilings  because  of  their 
hydraulic  nature.  Lime  plaster  is  employed  for  the  first 
coats  and  for  rough  interiors. 

Sand  is  used  in  most  of  the  plasters,  but  not  in  the  same 
proportions.  As  a general  rule,  it  should  be  clean,  angular  and 
coarse.  If  too  uneven-grained  it  must  be  screened  to  the 
proper  condition.  Plasterers  object  to  using  fine  sand  as  the 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


153 


plaster  “falls  through”  and  is  difficult  to  use.  The  best  Platte 
sand  comes  from  a depth  of  5 to  26  feet  below  the  water  line 
at  the  dredges.  However,  this  cannot  be  taken  as  an  in- 
variable rule. 

Plaster  made  of  lean  mixtures  does  not  adhere  strongly  to 
stone  and  brick.  For  water-tight  work,  the  proportions  of 
Portland  cement,  sand,  and  lime  paste  may  vary  from  1:2:05 
to  1:6:2.  For  ordinary  purposes  they  range  from  1:5:05  to 
1:10:20.  The  proportions  in  lime-sand  plaster  range  from  1:5 
to  I :i2. 

It  may  be  observed  from  these  proportions,  remembering 
that  the  amount  of  plaster  mortar  now  used  is  large,  that  the 
quantity  of  sand  thus  consumed  in  our  state  is  very  great,  es- 
pecially so  in  the  cities  where  tall  buildings  are  erected. 

Masonry  Mortar  . — This  is  employed  in  laying  brick,  rubble, 
dimension  stone,  artificial  stone,  etc.  Lime  mortar  is  generally 
used  in  contruction  above  ground  and  where  strong  structures 
are  not  desired.  Cement  mortars  are  used  in  thick  founda- 
tions, and  in  underground  work  and  where  great  strength  is 
demanded.  The  quantity  of  sand  required  in  laying  1000 
bricks  varies  from  3.8  to  15.2  bushels,  being  about  3.8  bushels 
with  ^ inch  joints;  9.6  bushels  with  ^ inch  joints;  12.5  bushels 
with  % inch  joints;  and  12.2  bushels  with  inch  joints. 

Volume  of  Mortar  in  a Cubic  Yard  of  Masonry.* 

For  brick  work,  ^ inch  joints  0.15  cu.  yds. 

For  brick  work,  ii^^ch  joints  0.25  cu.  yds. 

For  brick  work,  inch  joints  0.40  cu.  yds. 

For  squared  stone  masonry  0.20  cu.  yds. 

For  rubble  masonry  0.25  cu.  yds. 

For  concrete  0.55  cu.  yds. 


The  richness  of  a mortar  varies  with  the  demands  for 
strength  and  impermeability.  Generally,  clean  coarse  sands 
are  preferred. 

Mixing  Concrete — Mixing  is  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  into  intimate  relations  the  cement  and  aggregate, 


*From  the  Directory  of  American  Cement  Industries. 


154 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


thus  making  of  them  a hydrated  mass  which  by  ^‘setting”  be- 
comes concrete.  The  mixing  is  done  by  hand  where  small 
batches  are  made  and  with  mechanical  mixers  if  the  quantity  is 
large  (Figure  66). 


Fig.  66.  One  type  of  concrete  mixer 

“In  mixing  concrete  by  hand  a platform  is  constructed  as 
near  the  work  as  is  practicable,  the  sand  and  aggregate  being 
dumped  in  piles  at  the  side.  If  the  work  is  to  be  continuous, 
this  platform  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  accomodate  two 
batches,  so  that  one  batch  can  be  mixed  as  the  other  is  being 
deposited.” 

“A  very  common  and  satisfactory  method  of  mixing  con- 
crete is  as  follows:  First  measure  the  sand  and  cement  re- 
quired for  a batch  and  mix  these  into  mortar.  Spread  this 
mortar  in  a thin  layer  ,and  on  top  of  it  spread  the  aggregate, 
which  has  been  previously  measured  and  well  moistened.  The 
tnixing^  is  done  by  turning  with  shovels  three  or  more  times, 


USES  OU  SAND  AND  GRAVEL  155 

as  may  be  found  necessary,  to  produce  a thoroughly  uniform 
mixture,  water  being  added  if  necessary  to  give  the  proper 
consistency.  The  mixers,  two  to  four  in  number  according  to 
the  size  of  the  batch,  face  each  other  and  shovel  to  right  and 
left,  forming  two  piles,  after  which  the  materials  are  turned 
back  into  a pile  at  the  center.  By  giving  the  shovel  a slight 
twist  the  material  is  scattered  in  leaving  it  and  the  efficiency 
of  the  mixing  is  much  increased.”* 

‘Tt  has  been  demonstrated  that  concrete  can  be  mixed  by 
machinery  as  well,  if  not  better,  than  by  hand.  Moreover, 
if  large  quantities  of  concrete  are  required  a mechanical  mixer 
introduces  marked  economy  in  the  cost  of  canstruction.”* 

There  are  many  forms  and  kinds  of  mechanical  mixers,  oper- 
ated by  steam,  gasoline,  and  horse  power.  As  a rule  the 
method  of  mixing  and  the  proportions  and  properties  of  the 
materials  used  are  specified  in  all  concrete  construction  of  any 
consequence. 

As  soon  as  mixed,  a batch  is  either  “deposited”  in  some  form 
of  monolithic  construction  or  it  is  molded  into  products  such 
as  posts,  bricks  or  blocks.  If  deposited  it  requires  tamping. 
If  mixed  very  dry  it  must  be  vigorously  rammed  to  produce  a 
dense  mass,  but  as  the  proportion  of  water  increases,  less 
tamping  is  necessary. 

We  will  now  describe  a few  of  the  forms  of  concrete  con- 
struction, noting  in  most  cases  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
sand  and  coarse  aggregate  employed. 

Culverts  and  Abutments. — Six  or  seven  years  ago  the  rail- 
roads of  the  state  began  to  use  sand  and  either  gravel  or 
crushed  rock  in  concrete  culverts  and  abutments.  Since  that 
time  such  construction  has  assumed  great  importance,  displac- 
ing the  wood,  iron,  and  stone  structures.  The  Burlington  (Fig. 
67),  Rock  Island  (Fig.  68)  and  the  Union  Pacific  have  each 
used  thousands  of  cars  of  sand  from  the  Platte,  Fairbury,  and 
other  places  for  such  purposes  in  Nebraska.  In  1904  about  400 
cors  of  Nebraska  sand  were  shipped  to  Iowa  for  making  cul- 

*From  the  Directory  of  American  Cement  Industries. 


156 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


verts,  abutments,  and  bridges  on  the  main  line  of  the  Burlington 
between  Creston  and  Pacific  Junction.  During  the  past  year 
reinforcement  has  been  employed  very  generally  in  such  struct- 
ures in  1 13:5  and  i :3  :6  mixtures. 


Fig.  68.  Concrete  Abutments  and  Piers  of  the  Rock  Island  Railroad  near 
Lincoln.  Photo  by  Professor  E.  H.  Barbour 


USES'OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


157 


Concrete  Piers. — Probably  no  material  is  better  adapted  for 
this  construction  than  concrete,  especially  in  the  broad  sandy 
alluvial  bottoms  of  our  western  rivers.  Thus  far  only  a few 
small  railroad  piers  have  been  made  of  concrete  in  Nebraska, 
but  the  indications  are  that  large  bridges  which  are  soon  to 
be  built  across  the  Platte  will  rest  on  concrete  piers. 

Concrete  Dams. — These  are  replacing  the  brush,  wood,  and 
masonry  dams.  They  are  easily  and  readi’y  anchored  to  sandy 
banks,  much  more  so  than  other  dams,  and  are  not  often  seri- 
ously damage  by  either  ice  or  high  water.  One  of  the  first  con- 
crete dams  constructed  in  the  state  was  placed  across  the  Little 
Blue  River  at  Fairbury.  Others  have  been  built  at  Ericsoni 
Deweese,  Holmesville  and  Beatrice  (Fig.  69).  The  materials 
used  at  these  places  were  Portland  cement,  sand  and  either 
gravel  or  crushed  stone.  In  some  dams,  as  at  Fairbury,  only 
cement  and  sand  were  employed.  The  usual  proportions  of 
cement,  sand,  and  aggregate  are  1:2:5  and  1:3:6.  Concrete 
seems  to  be  one  of  the  best-known  materials  for  this  purpose 
It  is  built  in  monolithic  form  with  or  without  reinforcement. 


Fig.  59.  Concrete  Dam  at  Beatrice.  Photo  by  Professor  E,  H,  Barbour 


158 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SUR\^Y 


The  world's  largest  dams  are  now  building  with  concrete,  most 
of  them  being  reinforced  with  corrugated  steel  bars  and  steel  ca- 
bles. The  proportions  of  materials  usually,  but  not  always,  vary 
at  different  places  in  a dam,  with  the  leanest  mixtures  near  the 
base  and  the  richest  at  the  surface  and  top.  The  average  is 
a I :3  :4  mixture. 

Irrigation  Ditches. — Concrete  is  coming  into  use  for  both 
private  and  Federal  construction  of  irrigation  cana’s  and  ditch- 
es. The  conduits  are  lined  with  mixtures  which  prevent 
leakage.  This  form  of  aqueduct  is  a marked  contrast  to  the 
usual  sandy  or  gravelly  cana’s  in  irrigation  regions.  Con- 
crete head  gates,  flumes,  and  sections  of  ditches  have  been 
constructed  in  the  North  Platte  Valley  where  local  sand  and 
gravel  were  used. 

Water  Pipes. — Large  sizes  of  these  are  now  made  in  differ- 
ent states  and  countries  with  i 13  mixtures  of  Portland  cement 
and  coarse  sand  or  gravel.  The  cost  of  a cement  pipe  is 
small  in  comparison  with  iron  and  the  construction  is  more 
permanent.  With  its*  abundance  of  cheap  sand  and  gravel 
Nebraska  may  profit  by  the  experience  of  other  states  in  this 
regard.  A pen  stock  was  recently  built  of  this  material  at  the 
flouring  mill  at  Milford. 

Tanks  and  Reservoirs. — Concrete,  because  of  its  cheapness 
and  fitness  for  the  purpose,  is  rapidly  becoming  a leading 
material  for  these  forms  of  building.  The  tanks  and  reservoirs 
are  rectangular  or  circular  in  form  and  built  either  above  or 
below  ground.  They  are  used  for  the  storage  of  grain,  sand, 
coal,  water  and  various  other  materials. 

An  excavation  for  a cistern  or  reservoir  is  lined  with  a heavy 
I 13 :6  or  I .’3 15  masonry  concrete,  and  that  covered  with  a 
1 :2  :3  mixture  or  with  a 1 13  cement  mortar.  Usually  the  in- 
terior surface  is  made  impervious  by  adding  a wash  of  neat 
cement. 

During  the  past  year,  a large  underground  reservoir  was 
built  under  the  sidewalk  and  park  space  near  the  Library  Build- 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


159 


ing  of  the  State  University,  Lincoln  (Fig.  70).  Mr.  O.  J.  Fee, 
Superintendent  of  Grounds  and  Buildings  at  the  University, 
furnishes  the  accompanying  description  of  this : 


r;.'-' ,T  i\»fubmr  t-l'c  to  a 

* * 'i  1_  i k'e.toe. 


V '.  ' 

^ • • •' 

'iJliU 


' Crtrjf  Jmurth  bar  h b»  ■ 

J’ fonder  mnat  h«/tr  as  sMoms. 


attet  plait  a‘'lt’‘g 


lf-0* 


m 

;?-v*i 


Honizonr^i.  sccT/orit 


REmFOFtCe^D  COriC/=tETE 
RESERVOIR, 
rojt, 

THE  CITY  or  UHCOEn 

^r/D 

THE  urfiYCRsiTYor  rfCBfr/fsifyr 
orrrce  l SORT  or  conaTmjcTiorti 

Jbi,AiAndersa/%.  £>e.s. 


ycirr/CRE  sizcT/o.r(, 


“The  reservoir  is  no  ft.  long,  20  ft.  wide  and  12  ft.  deep, 
inside  measurement.  The  capacity  is  196,000  gallons.  The 
reservoir  is  made  of  reinforced  concrete,  except  the  floor,  in 
1:2:4  mixtures  and  is  lined  with  a richer  mixture.  The  stone 
was  crushed  to  pass  a one-inch  ring.  The  floor  and  cover  are 
6 in.  thick  and  the  walls  taper  from  15  to  9 in.  as  shown  by  the 
figure.  The  arrangement  of  bars  and  beams  gives  a net  work 


160 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


of  steel  reinforcement  sufficiently  strong  to  support  the  load.” 

Sewers. — Concrete  sewers  are  now  in  use  in  some  of  the 
largest  cities.  In  cross  section  they  are  circular,  oval  or  arched. 
Their  bases  contain  lean  mixtures,  running  as  low  as  i:6:io. 
The  coarse  aggregate  is  either  gravel  or  crushed  stone.  The 
sides  and  arches  of  the  sewers  are  made  from  1:3:6  to  1:4:8 
mixtures.  Some  monolithic  sewers  have  been  made  from  a i :2  :5 
concrete  mixture.  Lincoln  has  just  completed  a reinforced 
storm  sewer  on  south  12th  street,  using  1:3:7  mixtures,  fac- 
ing with  cement  mortar.  South  Omaha  is  constructing  a large 
concrete  sewer.  It  is  ii  ft.  in  diameter  and  about  3 miles 
long. 

Subways  and  Tunnels. — These  are  readily  and  cheaply  built 
with  concrete  in  which  sand  and  gravel  are  large  ingredients. 

Monolithic  Foundations  and  Walls. — Monolithic  concrete 
construction  has,  recently,  become  the  leading  form  of  founda- 
tion for  heavy  masonry.  It  likewise  makes  one  of  the  strongest 
and  most  permanent  retaining  walls  where  properly  built.  In 
general,  lean  mortar  and  coarse  aggregate  are  employed  near 
the  base  and  finer  aggregate  and  richer  mixtures  are  used  near 
the  surface.  Sea  walls,  breakwaters  and  tower  foundations  are 
some  of  the  larger  forms  of  this  construction,  the  Galveston 
and  Havana  seawalls,  the  Buffalo  break  waters,  and  the  foun- 
dation of  Washington  monument  being  examples. 

Monolithic  Houses. — The  “grout”  house  is  the  simplest  build- 
ing of  this  kind,  there  being  many  of  them,  each  one  story  high, 
in  the  western  counties.  Professor  O.  V.  P.  Stout  reports  a 
two  story  grout  house  located  nine  mi'es  east  of  Bridgeport. 
Reinforced  concrete  is  rapidly  becoming  a house-building 
material,' both  in  small  and  large  structures  (Fig.  71).  The 
entire  house,  with  little  exception,  is  bui't  of  concrete,  includ- 
ing the  foundation,  walls,  partitions,  floors,  ceiling,  stairways, 
roof  and  porches.  A few  of  these  houses  have  been  erected  in 
Lincoln  and  Omaha.  They  are  fire  proof  and  sanitary,  and 
will  last  for  generations  without  much  expense  for  maintain- 
^nce.  The  proportions  range  between  1:2:3  and  1:3:5  for  all 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


161 


exposed  parts.  It  wo*uld  seem  that  we  should  expect  an  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  monolithic  houses  in  Nebraska, ' because 
of  the  abundance  of  sand  and  the  accessibility  of  cement,  which 
in  sures  cheap  construction.  Very  probably  the  houses  will 
be  made  of  blocks  in  the  form  of  large  reinforced  monolithic 
units.  Two  walls  of  the  Wallage  livery  barn  in  Grand  Island 
are  monolithic  concrete.  They  are  four  stories  high.  It  ap- 
pears that  more  material  than  necessary  is  being  placed  in 
monolithic  walls. 


Fig.  71.  House  of  L.  E.  Wetling,  Washington  St.  The  first  example  of  a 
Monolithic  house  in  Lincoln.  From  the  forthcoming  paper  on  Cement  Its 
Uses  and  Its  Possible  Production  in  Nebraska  by  Pldwin  H.  Barbour. 

c>lrtificial  Stone. — This  is  variously  called  cement  blocks,  con- 
crete blocks  and  artificial  stone.  During  the  i)ast  four  years 
the  state  has  witnessed  a rapid  develo])inent  of  this  industry. 
Various  companies  have  sold  machines  and  the  right  to 
manufacture  certain  shapes  aud  patterns  of  blocks  (Fig.  Tib- 
Hollow  blocks,  anchor  blocks  and  two  piece  blocks  have  been 
advocated  and  promoted  (Figure  7»I).  A firm  at  Kearney  has 


1B2 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


72.  Aftilicial  Stone  Plant  at  Faii-bury 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


163 


introduced  machines  for  making  two-piece  blocks  at  probably 
50  places  in  the  state. 

Conditions  favor  the  production  of  artificial  stone,  since  lum- 
ber and  other  house-building  materials  are  expensive,  while 
sand  is  plentiful  and  cheap.  The  stone  has  been  made  too 
often  in  a careless  manner,  yet  the  improvement  in  technology 
has  been  rapid.  Producers  are  beginning  to  study  materials 
and  methods.  The  use  of  graded  materials,  right  mixtures, 
careful  facing  and  more  systematic  wetting  down  of  the  blocks 
will  result  in  the  manufacture  of  blocks  of  a better  grade  and 
more  permanence.  Mixtures  now  range  from  i of  cement  and 
5 of  sand  to  i of  cement  and  13  of  sand,  the  latter  being  too 
lean.  Crushed  stone  is  used  for  aggregate  at  p aces  in  1:2:4, 
I :3  .-5  and  i :3  :6  mixtures. 


Fig.  7:t.  Forms  of  Concrete  Blocks 

The  following  outline  shows  the  distribution  of  115  artificial 
stone  plants  in  Nebraska,  the  list  being  only  a part  of  the  total 
number ; 


164 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


PLACE 

Alexandria  . . 

Alliance 

Alma 

Ansley  

Arlington. . . . 

Ashland 

Atkinson 

Beaver  City. . 

Beatrice 

Bloomington 
Broken  Bow. 
Bridgeport. . . 

Bruning 

Cairo 

Cambridge. . . 
Cedar  Bluffs. 
Cedar  Rapids 
Clear  Creek. . 
Columbus. . . . 

Creston 

Crete 

De  Witt 

Elm  Creek. . . 
Elmwood  . . . . 

Fairbury 

Franklin 

Fremont 

F'ullerton 

Gothenburg. . 
Havelock  . . . 

Hebron 

Hildreth 

Holdrege 

Kearney  

Kennard 

Lincoln 

Lexington 

Madison 

Minitare 


No.  of  Plants 

1 

2 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

•. ...  1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

2 

2 

1 

3 

1 

2 

1 

1 

4 

1 

9 

2 

1 

1 


PLACE  No.  of  Plants 

Mason  City 1 

Miller 1 

Morse  Bluff 1 

McCook 1 

Neligh 1 

Nelson 1 

Norfolk  4 

North  Bend 2 

Oakland 1 

O’Neill 1 

Omaha,  6 large  and  several  small 
plants  at  Omaha. 

Ord 2 

Oxford I 

Papillion 1 

Pender 1 

Pleasanton 1 

Red  Cloud 2 

Riverton 1 

Sargent 1 

Schuyler 1 

Scotts  Bluff 1 

Sidney 1 

South*  Omaha 2 

Stanton 1 

Sterling 1 

Stuart 1 

Stratton 1 

Superior 3 

Tecumseh 1 

Tekamah 1 

Trenton 1 

Ulysses .•  2 

University  Place 1 

Valley 1 

Wasson 1 

Wilsonville  — 1 

Wymore 1 


Block  Machines. — Many  slightly  different  makes  of  these  are 
on  the  market.  They  fall  into  two  general  classes:  those 

with  vertical  and  those  with  horizontal  face  plates.  The  face- 
down machines  seem  to  have  the  preference.  A machine  has 
a metal  platform  or  stand  and  sets  of  molds  and  cores.  It 
provides  for  the  making  of  blocks  of  different  sizes,  forms,  and 
facings  with  the  least  inconvenience  possible  in  the  processes 
of  depositing  and  tamping  the  concrete,  and  removing  the 
green  blocks. 

During  the  past  few  years  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
supplant  hand  tamping  with  mechanical  presses,  but  not  in 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


165 


all  cases  with  satisfactory  results.  Machine  tamping  produces 
a heavy  dense  block,  requiring  more  sand  than  is  used  by  hand 
tamping. 

Curing. — Mr.  H.  A.  Reid,  of  New  York  City,  describes  cur- 
ing as  follows  in  his  book  on  Concrete  and  Reinforced  Concrete 
Construction:  “The  process  of  curing  after  the  block  has  been 
moulded  is  the  most  important  in  the  manufacture  of  concrete 
blocks.  All  blocks  manufactured  by  the  medium  wet  or  me- 
dium dry  process  should  be  made  under  cover,  and  protected 
from  the  sun,  from  dry  currents  of  air,  and  from  frost  until 
thoroughly  cured.  The  block  should  remain  on  the  pallet  at 
least  for  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours.  As  soon  as 
the  concrete  has  sufficiently  set  so  that  the  water  will  not  wash 
the  surface,  usually  from  four  to  twelve  hours  after  moulding, 
the  blocks  should  be  sprinkled  two  or  three  times  daily  for 
from  seven  to  fourteen  days.  Plenty  of  water  should  be  used 
to  supply  moisture  to  all  parts  of  the  block.  Blocks  should 
never  be  allowed  to  dry  out  on  the  surface  until  the  center 
has  cured.  The  moment  the  surface  of  the  block  begins  to 
turn  white  it  is  a sure  sign  that  it  needs  water.  Too 
much  water  cannot  be  used.  Care  should  be  taken  to  so  pile 
the  blocks  that  they  will  receive  moisture  equally  on  all  sides. 
The  slower  the  drying  of  the  block,  the  harder  and  tougher 
will  it  become.  A sand  floor  kept  wet  may  be  used  to  insure  a 
damp  atmosphere.” 

“For  curing,  a dry  mixture  will  require  more  moisture  than 
a medium  or  wet  mixture,  and  should  be  kept  in  moist  atmos- 
phere for  a longer  time  than  the  latter.  In  the  former  case 
blocks  should  be  kept  thoroughly  moist  for  at  least  20  days, 
while  in  the  latter  case  about  ten  days  will  suffice.” 

Facing. — This  process  is  coming  into  more  general  use.  The 
facing  is  made  of  rich  mixtures  of  Portland  cement  and  sand 
in  the  proportion  of  from  i :i  to  i 13.  Sometimes  a certain 
kind  of  crushed  stone  is  added  for  its  co’or  effect.  By  the  use 
of  facing,  a nearly  impervious  stone  can  be  produced,  using  a 
porous  concrete  backing.  This  cheapens  the  cost  of  producing 


166 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


a desirable  product  and  also  affords  an  opportunity  to  make 
any  design  or  color  of  surface  that  may  be  desired. 

It  is  particularly  necessary  that  the  facing  and  the  concrete 
backing  of  the  cement  blocks  be  thoroughly  united  either  by 
tamping  or  by  pressure.  The  face  and  backing  should  be  placed 
at  the  same  time. 

Comparative  Fitness  of  Concrete  Blocks  in  Construction. 

‘‘The  following  are  some  of  the  advantages  claimed  for  them: 

1.  The  hollow  form  results  in  a saving  of  materials  over 
brick  or  stone  masonry,  this  often  amounting  to  from 
20  to  50  per  cent. 

2.  The  cost  of  laying  concrete  blocks  is  less  than  for  brick 
work.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  blocks,  being 
large,  have  a much  smaller  number  of  joints,  and  require 
less  mortar,  and,  being  hollow,  are  of  less  weight  than 
solid  brick  work. 

3.  A wall,  properly  constructed  of  good  concrete  blocks,  is 
as  strong  or  stronger  than  a brick  wall  of  equal  thickness. 

4.  Concrete  blocks,  being  hollow,  tend  to  prevent  sudden 
changes  of  temperature  within  a house,  making  it  cool 
in  summer  and  easily  heated  in  winter.  For  the  same 
reason,  if  proper  vents  are  provided,  the  interior  of  the 
house  will  be  free  from  dampness  so  often  met  with 
in  houses  constructed  of  brick  or  stone. 

5.  The  hollow  spaces  provide  an  easy  means  for  running 
pipes  and  electric  wires.  These  spaces  may  also  be  used 
wholly  or  in  part  for  heating  and  ventilating  flues. 

6.  Concrete  blocks,  being  easily  moulded,  may  often  be 
used  to  replace  cut  stone,  with  considerable  saving  in 
cost. 

7.  The  fire  proof  qualities  of  concrete  are  equal  or  superior 
to  that  of  brick  and  stone. 

8.  The  ease  and  rapidity  with  which  a wall  built  of  concrete 
blocks  may  be  constructed  make  their  use  in  many  cases 
very  desirable.”* 

♦Reid.  Concrete  and  Reinforced  Concrete:  pp.  855  and  856. 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


167 


Scind-cement  Bricks. — These  are  made  of  cement  and  sand  at 
a number  of  towns  in  the  state.  The  product  is  very  similar 
to  artificial  stone,  the  only  essential  difference  being  size. 
Coloring  matter  is  sometimes  added  to  the  facing  to  produce 
an  imitation  of  some  particular  kind  of  stone  or  to  give  a desired 
color  to  the  bricks.  Hand  presses  are  used  for  compacting 
the  mortar  into  bricks.  Cement  users  are  now  looking  with 
favor  towards  the  installation  of  brick  machines.  Superintend- 
ent Marshall  of  Knox  County  reports  a $25,000  cement-brick 
house  at  Bloomfield. 

Fence  Posts. — One  of  the  latest  and  most  novel  uses  of  sand 
is  in  the  making  of  posts  (Figure  74).  Railroads  are  the  largest 
producers,  yet  the  number  of  moulds  sold  to  farmers,  cement 
users  and  park  boards  during  the  past  year  was  unusually  Targe. 
The  posts  used  by  railroads  are  made  of  plain  concrete  or  more 
generally  of  iron  with  concrete  bases.  Those  manufactured  by 
the  cement  users  are  concrete  with  reinforcement  throughout. 


Fig.  74.  Concrete  Fence  Posts 

Other  Uses  of  Concrete. — The  number  of  additional  uses  is 
large,  the  following  are  a few  of  them: 

I.  Water  tanks  and  troughs. 

2..  Columns,  chimneys,  towers,  monuments. 


168 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVET 


3.  Veneer  for  buildings. 

4.  Drainage  tile. 

5.  Furniture  and  vaults. 

Side  Walks. — Sand  is  the  largest  ingredient  in  present  day 
sidewalk  construction  in  Nebraska.  Formerly  wooden  walks 
prevailed  in  nearly  all  of  the  towns,  but  now  they  are  only 
occasionally  put  down.  The  cities  are  building  brick,  cement, 
stone,  and  artificial  stone  walks.  Omaha  has  a great  deal 
of  stone,  brick,  and  wood  walk.  Lincoln  has  a few  walks 
which  tell  the  story  of  the  days  when  pebble  rock  and  tar 
were  used.  Among  the  smaller  cities,  Tekamah  and  Wahoo 
are  among  the  best  builders  of  cement  walks. 

In  section,  a cement  or  concrete  sidewalk  according  to  city 
specifications  shows  three  courses;  the  sub-base,  the  base,  and 
the  wearing  surface.  The  sub-base  consists  of  either  cinders,, 
gravel  or  crushed  stone  placed  about  three  inches  deep.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Lincoln  specifications  the  base  should  be  at  least 
3 inches  thick,  consisting  of  broken  stone,  slag  or  clean  coarse 
gravel  and  sand  and  cement,  in  the  proportions  of  i part  cement, 
3 parts  sand  and  4 or  5 parts  broken  stone.  When  gravel 
is  used  the  proportions  are  i part  cement  and  4 parts  gravel; 
to  these  are  added  a sufficient  quantity  of  sand  to  fill  all  inter- 
stices, but  the  quantity  of  sand  shall  not  exceed  double  the 
quantity  of  cement  used.  It  is  required  that  the  gravel  shall 
be  composed  of  durable  materials,  the  fragments  being  not 
larger  than  i inch  or  less  than  ^ inch  in  their  largest  dimension. 

The  wearing  surface  is  at  least  i inch  thick  and  composed 
of  the  best  grade  of  Portland  cement  mixed  with  sand  and 
aggregate  in  the  proportions  of  i 14.  The  sand  shall  be 
clean  and  graded  from  coarse  to  fine.  “The  crushed  stone 
shall  be  composed  of  durable  minerals  or  rock  and  screened 
through  a one-half  inch  mesh.”  The  wearing  surface  is  broken 
by  expansion  joints,  dressed  smooth,  indented  with  a toothed 
roller,  and  covered  with  a sand  moisture  pad. 

Sand  as  a Moisture  Pad. — “In  building  concrete  sidewalks  or 
other  like  construction,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  concrete  from 


USES  OP  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


169 


drying  too  rapidly  in  order  to  prevent  the  formation  of  cracks, 
commonly  called  hair  cracks.  For  this  purpose  a clean  sand  is 
spread  over  the  surface  in  sufficient  thickness  to  hold  water  for 
a days  evaporation  and  then  sprinkled  to  saturation.  The 
sand  blanket  is  sprinkled  every  day,  usually,  but  oftener  in  hot 
windy  weather.  The  covering  is  removed  after  the  cement 
work  has  become  thoroughly  set,  but  not  for  some  time  after 
the  necessity  for  wetting  has  passed.  The  blanket  is  needed 
at  this  time  to  prevent  extreme  variations  in  temperature, 
giving  fewer  expansion  stresses  and  more  uniform  crystaliza- 
tion.  Sand  similarly  placed  on  pavement,  furnishes  a good 
cushion  until  the  cement  ripens.”* 

A very  general  practice  in  the  state  has  been  to  make  a 
sub-base  of  tamped  cinders  and  to  cover  it  with  a 1:3:6  base 
to  a depth  of  3 or  4 inches,  dressing  this  with  a 1:2  mixture  of 
Portland  cement  and  sand.  There  is  now  a tendency  to  do 
away  with  the  sub-base  and  in  some  cases  with  the  base  and 
place  a two-inch  walk  directly  on  the  ground. 

Brick  sidewalks  have  a sub-base  of  sand  or  cinders.  Some- 
times a cushion  of  sand  1 inch  thick  is  placed  over  the  cinders. 
The  san  sub-base  used  in  Omaha  is  4 inches  thick.  The  brick 
course  makes  the  base  and  wearing  surface.  Sand  sufficient  in 
quantity  to  fill  the  joints  is  spread  over  the  bricks.  Walks 
are  also  made  of  artificial  stone  or  cement  blocks  placed  on  a 
sand  cushion  and  sub-base. 

According  to  Engineer  Grant,  Lincoln  used  3,000  yards  of 
sand  in  walks  undei  municipal  control  during  the  year  1906. 
This  is  about  12o  cars.  Omaha  put  down  293.30  miles  of  walk 
during  the  same  year.  Of  this,  121.84  miles  were  brick;  78.75 
miles,  wood;  68.60  miles,  artificial  stone;  20.03  miles,  stone; 
3.75  miles,  macadam;  28  miles  asphalt;  and  .25  miles,  tiling. 

Pavements.  ~ This  subject  should  be  considered  as  a separate 
topic,  but  is  placed  here  because  pavements  contain  large  quan- 
tities of  sand  in  their  construction.  Pavements  are  laid  in 
courses.  Brick  pavements  require  six  inches  or  more  of  sand 
(Figure  75).  In  Lincoln  many  miles  of  brick  pavement  were 

*By  O.  J.  Fee 


170 


NEBRASKA.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Sand  used  in  brick  pavement,  Lincoln 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


171 


constructed  a few  years  ago  with  two  sand  courses.  The 
section  is  4 to  6 inches  of  a sand  base;  a layer  of  brick,  lying 
flat;  2 inches  of  sand,  forming  a cushion;  and  a wearing  surface 
of  brick  on  edge.  Besides  this  it  required  about  i inch  of 
sand  to  fill  the  joints,  making  in  all  7 to  9 inches  of  sand.  Such 
pavements  are  on  K,  L,  M,  O,  P,  R and  other  streets  of  Lincoln. 
New  brick  pavement  in  Lincoln  contains  4 inches  of  concrete 
as  a base,  5 inches  of  sand  cushion,  and  a wearing  surface 
formed  by  brick  on  edge.  This  is  covered  with  an  inch  of 
sand  grout  to  fill  the  joints.  Old  brick  pavement  repairing  re- 
quires 3 inches  of  sand,  two  being  for  cushion  and  one  for  the 
surface  and  joints.  Omaha  uses  a 6 inch  concrete  base,  in  pro- 
portion of  I 13:6;  a sand  cushion  i^inches;  and  a vitrified  brick 
on  edge  4 inches.  The  joints  are  filled  and  the  surface  cov- 
ered with  one  inch  of  sand  grout.  Omaha  built  18.75  niiles  of 
brick  pavement  in  1906. 

Almost  any  Nebraska  sand  will  do  for  cushion  or  bedding,  but 
that  used  in  concrete  and  for  grouting  should  be  more 
carefully  selected. 

Asphalt  paving,  now  increasing  in  mileage  in  the  cities,  is  a 
large  consumer  of  sand,  but  not  so  much  so,  relatively,  as 
brick  paving.  The  asphalt  pavement  is  laid  in  concrete,  binder 
and  wearing  surface  layers  or  courses.  The  concrete  course, 
3 to  6 inches  thick,  and  composed  of  1 13  15  or  i 13  :6  mixtures, 
requires  nearly  2 inches  of  sand.  Platte  sand  is  very  generally 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  binder  course,  one  or  two  inches 
thick,  is  made  of  an  asphalt  and  crushed  stone.  It  is 
covered  with  a wearing  surface  one  or  one  and  a half  inches 
thick,  which  is  composed  of  asphaltic  cement,  5 to  15  per  cent; 
sand,  75  to  88  percent;  and  pulverized  carbonate  of  lime,  3 to 
10  percent.  Residence  streets  require  only  one  inch  of  binder. 
The  sand  and  cement  are  heated  separately  to  about  300  de- 
grees Fahrenheit.  The  carbonate  of  lime  is  mixed  with  hot 
sand  in  the  required  proportion  and  the  product  is  then  mixed 
with  the  hot  asphaltic  cement  according  to  specifications.  The 
sand  used  in  this  course  should  be  carefully  selected  by  the 


172 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


paving  expert,  since  its  grading  is  an  important  factor.  Form 
and  sharpness  have  less  importance  in  the  surfacing  of  asphalt 
pavement  than  most  engineers  have  thought.  It  makes  little 
difference  whether  the  sand  is  round  or  sharp,  except  that  a 
very  sharp  sand  has  a tendency  to  eat  its  way  through  the 
asphalt,  coming  to  the  surface.  Mr.  Hugh  Murphy,  one  of 
the  leading  paving  contractors  of  the  west,  carefully  grades  all 
sand  used  by  him  in  asphalt  paving.  By  this  method  he  is  able 
to  produce  a good  paving  material  from  the  finer  Platte  sands 
which  are  now  known  to  be  well  suited  for  this  purpose. 

Stone  and  cement-block  paving  require  a concrete  base  of 
about  six  inches;  a cushion  of  sand,  about  2 inches;  and  sand 
enough  to  fill  the  joints.  Wood  block  paving  also  requires  a 
large  amount  of  sand  in  the  cushion  and  base. 

Engineer  Grant  submits  the  following  figures  which  show 
the  amount  of  sand  that  was  used  in  Lincoln  pavements  during 
the  year  1906. 


Sq.  Yds. 

Brick  pavement,  new  4»475 

Brick  Pavement,  repaired  19,850 

Asphalt  pavement  36,800 


Cu.  Yds.  sand. 
600 

1,650  ' 

3700 


Total  61,125 


5.950 


During  the  year  1906,  Omaha  put  down  96.668  miles  of  pave- 
ment, of  which  41.443  miles  were  asphalt;  25.476  miles  were 
stone;  and  18.752  miles  were  brick. 

Roofing  Gravel. — This  material  is  used  very  generally  in 
flat  roof  construction  (Figure  76).  Omaha,  Lincoln,  South 
Omaha,  Beatrice  and  Nebraska  City  have  been  the  largest  con- 
sumers. Mr.  O.  J.  Fee,  Superintendent  of  Grounds  and  Build- 
ings, the  University  of  Nebraska,  describes  the  construction 
thus:  “For  waterproof  roof  construction,  gravel  is  used  with 

either  felt  or  composition  paper  and  tar.  The  canvas  or  com- 
position is  nailed  on  a clean-swept,  tight  board  surface,  in  one, 
two,  three,  four  or  five  ply,  treating  each  ply  with  a coat  of 
tar.  Then  gravel  is  added  as  an  evenly  placed  layer,  to  the  tar 
covered  surface.  All  loose  pebbles  are  swept  off. 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


173 


This  construction  is  used  in  place  of  tin  or  copper,  being 
somewhat  cheaper  and  more  durable.  It  does  not  rust,  nor 
buckle  under  expansion  nor  break  in  contraction. 

The  gravel  should  be  water  worn,  about  diameter, 

or  of  such  size  as  to  prevent  being  carried  off  by  the  flowing 
of  tar  under  a hot  sun.  It  should  be  large  enough  to  prevent 
the  tar  from  flowing  out  and  around  the  pebbles.  Sharp  gravel 
cuts  through  the  subcoats  rendering  a leaky  roof.  It  should 
be  apparent  from  the  foregoing  description,  that  such  con- 
struction is  suited  only  to  flat  roofs.  On  steep  roofs  the  tar 
flows  off  loosening  the  gravel  and  leaving  the  subcoats  bare.” 
Roofing  gravel  sells  at  50c.  to  $1.00  a yard  at  the  pits  and 
at  about  $2.00  a yard  on  the  market.  The  principal  sources 
are  the  pits  near  Richfield  and  Cedar  Creek. 


Fig.  7G.  Roofing  Gravel 

Street  and  Road  Making. — The  use  of  sand  and  gravel  for 
the  simplest  forms  of  street  and  road  making  is  very  general 
throughout  civilized  countries  where  there  is  an  adequate 
supply  of  the  matei^ls  and  it  is  not  advisable  to  build  costly 


174 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


pavements  and  macadam  roads.  In  its  cheapest  construction 
the  sand  or  gravel  is  deposited  without  the  preparation  of  a 
subgrade.  It  is  laid  somewhat  evenly  to  a given  depth  over 
portions  of  the  roadway. 

Where  a road  is  to  be  ballasted  in  such  a manner  as  to  insure 
permanence  the  sub-grade  is  trenched,  crowned  and  covered 
with  a gravel  course  according  to  specifications.  Such  roads 
have  been  built  in  Indiana  and  other  gravel  producing  states. 
The  thickness  of  the  ballast  varies  from  about  8 to  12  inches 
and  the  cost  ranges  from  $500  to  $3500  per  mile. 

It  is  not  known  just  how  generally  Nebraska  will  build  other 
than  dirt  roads.  The  demand  for  road-making  materials  is 
not  great  at  this  time. 

In  districts  where  the  natural  road  beds  are  clayey,  i.  e. 
either  a gumbo  or  hardpan,  sand  becomes  an  important  and 
much  sought-for  material.  When  mixed  with  the  clay  it  im- 
proves drainage  conditions  and  thereby  produces  a better  road 
surface.  In  places  where  the  natural  road-bed  is  too  sandy^ 
clay  is  in  demand.  As  a rule  our  natural  roads  are  more  sandy 
than  clayey.  They  drain  readily  and  require  the  minimum  ex- 
pense for  maintenance.  Notwithstanding  these  favorable  con- 
ditions the  agitation  for  better  roads  in  the  towns  and  rural 
districts  is  growing.  This  demand  will  call  for  large  quanti- 
ties of  stone,  gravel  and  sand  in  the  near  future.  The  supply 
of  sand  and  gravel  can  be  secured  from  various  sources,  as  at 
Tekamah,  Wahoo,  Fairbury,  Hebron,  Brickton  and  from  the 
deepest  dredging  in  the  Platte  alluvium. 

Thus  far  these  materials  have  been  used  to  some  extent  for 
ballast  on  streets  at  Arapahoe,  Red  Cloud,  Fairbury,  Beatrice, 
Lincoln,  Wahoo,  and  other  cities.  Macadam  roads,  made  of 
crushed  stone  and  sand,  are  in  process  of  construction  in  the 
vicinity  of  Auburn  and  Omaha.  One  of  the  roads  at  Omaha 
extends  northward  beyond  Florence. 

Surface  gravel  for  ballast  should  be  about  ii^ch  in  diameter, 
angular  and  quite  free  from  dirt.  Coarser  materials  can  be  used 
in  the  foundation.  The  important  requisite  for  a good  road 


USES  OP  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


175 


gravel  is  that  it  shall  pack  well  under  travel.  In  this  respect 
the  “Sherman  hill”  gravel  (Figure  77)  (rotted  granite)  shipped 
from  Wyoming,  is  one  of  the  best  materials.  The  rounded  peb- 
bly gravel  mined  from  the  Dakota  Formation  is  not  well  suited 
for  this  purpose. 


Fig.  77.  Sherman  Hill  BsCllast  on  U.  P.  R.  R.  Kearney 

Railroad  Ballast. — For  several  years,  gravel  has  been  one  of 
the  standard  ballasts  of  the  United  States.  It  meets  most  of  the 
requirements  for  the  purpose  and  is  used  very  largely  where 
the  source  of  supply  is  adequate  and  the  cost  low. 

The  Northwestern  railroad  has  ballasted  many  miles  of  its 
lines  in  Iowa  with  glacial  gravel.  This  is  graded  in  sizes  from 
fine  sand  to  cobble  stone.  During  the  past  year  material  of 
this  kind  and  from  this  source  was  shipped  into  Nebraska  and 
laid  along  portions  of  the  line  between  Blair  and  Lincoln  (Fig- 
ure 78). 

As  a rule  Nebraska’s  gravel  is  too  fine  for  ballast.  It  seems 
better  adapted  for  surfacing  and  for  a subcourse.  The  North- 
western has  mined  thousands  of  cars  of  ballast  near  Stuart 
and  Long  Pine  and  used  it  on  the  Black  Hills  branch.  This 


176 


NKBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


gravel  serves  well  as  a ballasting  material  where  the  rainfall 
is  low. 

The  Rock  Island  has  used  gravel,  cinders,  and  crushed  stone, 
but  has  recently  brought  most  of  its  roadbed  up  to  a standard 
stone  ballast. 

The  Union  Pacific  has  been  a large  user  of  “Sherman  gravel” 
which  is  a decayed  granite  (Figure  77).  This  material  is  angu- 
lar, not  worn.  On  this  account  it  meets  the  requirements 
more  fully  than  does  a river  deposit.  This  ballast  is  used  on 
the  main  line  of  the  Union  Pacific  from  Omaha  to  Cheyenne 
and  at  places  on  branch  lines.  It  is  employed -also  for  depot 
platforms  and  walks.  The  Rock  Island  is  mining  a similar 
deposit  in  Colorado  and  using  it  for  the  same  purposes. 


Fig.  78.  Glocial  Gravel  Ballast  used  on  Northwestern  Railroad,  Fremont 

There  is  no  residual  granite  of  this  kind  in  position  in  Ne- 
braska, consequently  the  long  haul  of  these  materials  must 
continue.  The  excellence  of  this  material  in  a subhumid  cli- 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


17T 


mate  seems  to  warrant  the  large  expense  of  ballasting  with  it. 
‘Nebraska’s  nearest  product  of  this  kind  is  found  in  the  glacio- 
fluvial  sand  plain  and  deep  down  in  the  Platte  flood  plain.  These 
gravels  are  water  worn  and  not  always  coarse  enough  for 
ballast.  Some  of  the  North  Platte  gravel  would  yield  a product 
similar  to  the  “Sherman  hill”  if  crushed. 

The  Burlington  railroad,  under  the  direction  of  Chief  En- 
gineer Calvert,  has  made  a careful  search  along  its  lines  for 
a high  grade  of  gravel  ballast.  Coarse  sands  suited 
for  surfacing  have  been  located  and  worked,  but  thus  far  no 
large  supply  of  really  good  gravel  has  been  found  that  can  be 
worked  economically.  During  the  past  two  years  the  Burling- 
ton has  used  many  thousands  of  cars  of  sand  on  its  Great 
Northern  line  between  Sioux  City  and  Lincoln,  and  on  the 
new  construction  between  Lincoln  and  Milford.  This  supply 
comes  from  the  dredges.  During  the  year  1906  dredges  were 
loading  sand  and  gravel  from  the  Platte  south  of  Fremont. 
This  year  much  of  the  railroad  supply  is  obtained  from  the  Ash- 
land and  Louisville  dredges. 

The  Burlington  railroad  uses  a great  deal  of  sand  in  ballast- 
ing. The  new  grades  and  dump  are  covered  with  6 inches  of 
sand  (Figure  79).  This  is  covered  in  time,  with  cinders  and  slag 
or  crushed  stone,  making  an  elastic  road  bed  which  drains 
readily. 


7U.  Section  of  Sand  Ballast  Used  on  C.  B.  g.  K.  K. 

Formerly,  some  of  the  railroads  used  the  rounded  Dakota- 
gravel  for  ballast,  but  found  that  it  is  poorly  fitted  for  the 
purpose.  It  proved  most  undesirable  in  deep  cuts  where  there 
is  seepage  water. 

Another  feature  of  railroad  building  in  our  state  is  becoming 
better  understood.  It  is  that  there  is  large  diversity  in  the  sub- 


178 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICCL  SURVEY 


soil  which  is  used  for  making  the  dumps.  Some  of  it  is  very- 
clayey,  consequently  it  slips  badly  in  fills  and  is  also  readily 
gullied  by  rain  erosion.  This  means  that  it  has  become  nec- 
essary to  cap  such  places  with  material  that  contains  more  sand. 
It  might  prove  even  more  advantageous  to  mix  the  clay  and 
sand  in  these  dumps. 

SAND  LIME  BRICK. 

This  industry  is  young  in  the  United  States.  The  first  plant 
was  installed  at  Michigan  City,  Indiana,  in  1902.  Since  that 
time  the  number  of  plants  and  the  production  have  rapidly  in- 
creased. This  is  shown  by  the  accompanying  tables  published  by 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

Sand  lime  bricks  have  been  manufactured  for  many  years  in 
Germany,  where  they  are  said  to  have  given  satisfaction  for  a 
number  of  uses.  When  first  introduced  in  the  United  States,  it 
was  claimed  that  they  would  successfully  compete  with  clay 
bricks  on  the  market  and  probably  seriously  affect  that  in- 
dustry. Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  there  has  been  a rapid 
increase  in  the  number  of  plants  and  in  the  production  of  brick, 
it  is  now  becoming  apparent  that  the  clay  brick  industry  is  not 
affected  to  any  great  extent  by  the  newer  industry.  Thus  it 
appears  that  the  possibilities  of  sand-lime  brick  have  been 
somewhat  overdrawn.  In  the  presence  of  so  many  kinds  of 
concrete  construction  and  cheap  cement,  the  industry  finds  a 
formidable  rival.  Usually  the  grade  of  brick  produced  has 
proved  to  be  lower  than  was  claimed.  However,  more  exper- 
ience in  the  industry  should  result  in  the  making  of  bricks 
which  will  have  ready  sale. 

Systems  of  Patents. — There  are  many  slightly  different  meth- 
ods or  systems  of  making  the  sand-lime  brick,  most  of  which 
are  covered  by  patents.  As  a rule,  each  patent  covers  only  one 
process  in  the  manufacture.  Mr.  S.  V.  Peppel,  who  is  our  best 
authority  on  the  subject  of  sand-lime  brick,  says  that  he  sees  no 
good  reason  why  plants  should  not  be  built,  or  why  good 
brick  shoifid  not  be  made,  independent  of  all  the  patents  and 
systems. 


USES  OP  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


179 


The  manufacture  of  brick  is  similarly  done  by  all  of  the 
so-called  systems.  The  American  System,  which  is  a modifica- 
tion of  Kommick’s  System,  and  the  Huenneckes  System,  are 
employed  at  most  plants  in  the  United  States.  The  last  named 
system,  as  described  by  its  promoters,  employs  the  following- 
processes,  which  will  serve  in  general  to  illustrate  the  method 
■of  manufacture. 

‘'The  lime  is  ground  in  a pulverizing  mill;  from  the  mill  the 
pulverized  lime  falls  into  an  apparatus  which  is  used  to  measure 
out  the  required  proportions  of  lime  and  sand,  the  latter  ma- 
terial being  simultaneously  brought  into  another  part  of  the 
apparatus.  This  measuring  apparatus  is  adjustable,  and  will 
be  so  set,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  sand  and  lime  to  be 
used,  that  it  will  measure  off  about  from  94  to  96  parts  of  sand 
to  about  4 to  6 parts  of  lime  in  weight.  From  this  measuring 
apparatus  the  sand  and  lime  thus  measured  off  fall  into  a mix- 
ing apparatus  in  which  the  two  materials  are  thoroughly 
blended  together.  This  apparatus,  like  that  previously  men- 
tioned, runs  continuously  and  turns  the  mixture  over  to  an 
•elevator,  which  carries  it  wherever  it  may  be  wanted.  The 
mixture  is  compressed  into  bricks  in  a press  especially  con- 
structed for  the  purpose.  The  freshly  compressed  bricks  are 
stacked  on  iron  tray  cars,  which,  after  they  are  loaded,  are 
run  into  a long  iron  cylinder,  * cylinder 

holding  10,000  to  20,000  bricks  according  to  its  length,  is  her- 
metically sealed  and  then  subjected  to  the  direct  action  of 
high-pressured  steam  fed  by  previously  deposited  chemicals. 
In  this  way  the  hydrated  lime  and  the  silicic  acid  of  the  sand 
combine  and  form  a silicate  of  lime,  which  gives  to  the  bricks 
their  hardness  and  waterproof  properties.  After  the  bricks 
have  undergone  the  action  of  the  steam  for  ten  or  twelve 
hours,  * * * they  are  ready  for  use.” 

Raw  Materials. — Lime  and  sand  are  used  in  the  manufacture, 
in  proportions  ranging  between  i to  10  and  i to  25.  Almost 
any  river  or  bank  sand  is  suitable.  Ordinarly  however,  it  re- 
quires grinding.  The  ideal  sand  is  one  which  is  graded  from 


180 


NEBRASKA  GOELOGICAL  SURVEY 


coarse  to  fine,  ranging  between  the  40  and  150  meshes  with 
five  or  ten  percent  passing  the  latter. 

‘‘A  sand  with  too  much  clay  in  it  will  make  a brick  which  will 
liuL  stand  up  long  under  the  attacks  of  severe  weather.”  “It 
would  appear  that  clay  up  to  ten  or  twelve  percent  is  probably 
not  dangerous,  and  possibly  as  small  an  amount  as  two  and 
a half  percent  might  be  desirable.”  The  clay  content,  therefore, 
should  be  low,  clean  sand  being  preferred.  It  is  thought  by 
some  that  feldspar  and  other  silicate  minerals  should  not  form 
more  than  10  percent  of  the  sand  and  that  quartz  sand  is  the 
best. 

Pure  calcium  lime  has  shown  its  superiority  over  dolomite 
limes  in  tests,  hence  is  to  be  preferred.  Hydraulic  lime  does- 
not  appear  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  processes. 

Processes  in  the  Manufacture  of  Brick. — These  are  about 
follows,  according  to  most  systems : 

1.  Preparation  of  the  sand  and  lime. 

2.  Mixing  the  ground  sand  and  either  ground  or  slaked 
lime. 

3.  Conveying  to  bins  or  to  presses. 

4.  Pressing. 

5.  Conveying  to  cylinders. 

6.  Hardening  bricks  under  pressure  in  a cylinder  or  kettle. 

7.  Removing  bricks  from  the  cylinder  and  placing  them  in 
storage. 

Dirty  sand  requires  washing  and  coarse  sand  should  be 
ground.  For  this  purpose  tlie  Griffin  Mill  is  in  general  use. 
Quick  lime  is  ground  if  purchased  in  lump  form  and  “slaked”^ 
i.  e.  hydrated  either  before  or  after  it  has  been  mixed  with  sand. 
The  Swartz  Machine  is  probably  the  best  mixer;  the  pug  mill 
type,  however,  is  most  used.  Various  kinds  of  conveyors  are 
employed.  The  presses  employed  are  simi’ar  to  those  used  in 
making  pressed  brick,  but  must  be  very  strong  and  capable  of 
withstanding  an  occasional  overload,  since  sand  is  less  elastic 
than  clay  and  any  excess  of  material  placed  in  the  mould  will 
otherwise  bring  disastrous  results  if  the  safety  limit  is  not 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL  28L 

large.  “Since  sand-bricks,  when  first  pressed,  are  so  tender  that 
they  do  not  stand  pushing  aroun'd  without  injury,  the  rotating 
table  is  the  one  thing  characterizing  the  German  press  which 
recommends  it,  and  it  was  the  result  of  an  effort  by  the  German 
manufacturers  to  adapt  the  press  to  the  needs  of  the  industry.’^ 
Bricks  are  taken  from  the  press  by  hand  and  arranged  on  cars 
or  trucks.  These  cars  thus  loaded  are  run  into  the  cylinder 
which  is  tightly  closed  by  a strong  door  when  filled  (Fig.  8o). 


Fi<r.  80.  Hardening  Cylinder  at  Hastings  Sand-lime  Brick  Plant 

The  bricks  are  steamed  lo  to  14  hours  under  a pressure  of  100 
to  150  pounds,  after  which  the  cars  are  run  to  the  sheds  and 
the  bricks  stored,  awaiting  sale.  They  are  in  condition  for 
use  soon  after  being  removed  from  the  cylinders. 


182 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Nature  of  the  Bricks. — The  most  noticeable  feature  is  their 
light  color.  The  texture  is  similar  to  that  of  a fine  grained 
sandstone,  hence  the  name,  artificial  sandstone,  which  is  often 
used.  The  grains  are  not  always  firmly  united  by  the  lime  or  its 
derivatives  which,  it  is  claimed,  results  from  a chemical  com- 
bination between  the  lime  and  quartz  silica.  Consequently  the 
bricks  have  a tendency  to  be  friable,  if  the  bond  is  weak. 

Physical  tests  performed  by  Mr.  S.  V.  Peppel  show  that  sand- 
lime  bricks  withstand  freezing  admirably  well,  and  that  they 
resist  high  temperatures,  when  composed  largely  of  quartz. 

The  following  table  embodies  data  taken  from  the  Wisconsin 
Geological  Survey.  It  compares  natural  sandstone  used  for 
building  and  sand-lime  brick. 

Natural  sandstone  Sand-lime  brick 
Absorption  7.3  per  cent.  8 per  cent. 

Weight  per  cubic  foot  137  136 

Crushing  strength  6,535  lb.  7,745  lb. 

The  Constitution  of  Sand-lime  Brick. — *“In  previous  publi- 
cations on  the  sand-lime  brick  industry  the  writer  has  stated 
that  conclusive  evidence  had  not  yet  been  produced  as  to  the 
constitution  of  the  binding  medium  of  sand-lime  brick.  The 
advocates  of  the  new  product  not  only  claimed  that  a definite 
lime  silicate  was  formed  during  processes  of  manufacture,  but 
usually  made  the  additional  claim,  by  implication  at  least,  that 
this  silicate  was  the  same  as  that  which  exists  in  Portland 
cement.  The  fact  was  overlooked  that  purely  chemical  means 
could  not  be  relied  on  to  prove  these  facts  if  facts  they  were. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  writer,  admitting  his  own  in- 
competency, to  decide  the  question,  believed  it  advisable  to  con- 
sider the  matter  unsettled,  pending  a decisive  test  by  the  only 
means  possible — the  petrographic  microscope,  used  by  one  of 
the  very  few  investigators  intimately  acquainted  with  the  lime- 
silicate  series.” 

“During  the  past  year  evidence  has  been  submitted  which 
seems  conclusive.  Mr.  Frederick  E.  Wright,  at  the  writer’s 

♦Eckel,  Edwin  C.,  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  1906.  • 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


183 


, Fig.  81.  General  view  of  Sand-lime  B rick  Plant,  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 


184 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


request,  examined  several  specimens  of  commercial  sand-lime 
brick  in  the  geophysical  laboratory  of  the  Carnegie  Institution. 
Mr.  Wright  states  that  the  binding  material  of  these  specimens 
is  a hydrous  silicate  somewhat  akin  to  the  familiar  minerals  of 
the  zeolite  group.  The  reactions  involved  in  the  formation  of 
such  a hydrous  silicate  from  lime  and  sand  in  the  presence  of 
steam  are  simple  and  well  known.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however, 
that  these  reactions  are  in  no  way  comparable  to  those  which 
take  place  during  the  processes  of  Portland  cement  manufac- 
ture and  that  the  binding  material  of  sand-lime  brick  is  very 
different  in  composition  and  relationship  from  Portland  cement 
clinker. 

It  may  be  safely  assumed,  then,  that  a sand-lime  brick  as  mar- 
keted consists  of  (i)  sand  grains  held  together  by  a network 
of  (2)  hydrous  lime  silicate,  with  probably  (If  magnesian 
lime  were  used)  some  allied  magnesian  silicate,  and  (3) 
lime  hydrate  or  a mixture  of  lime  and  magnesia  hy- 
drates. These  three  elements  will  always  be  present,  and  the 
structural  value  of  the  brick  will  depend  in  large  part  on  the 
relative  percentages  in  which  the  sand,  the  silicates,  and  the 
hydrates  occur.” 

Plants  in  Neighboring  States. — The  writer  visited  some  of 
these  for  the  purpose  of  familiarizing  himself  with  their 
methods,  and  economic  aspects.  This  seemed  necessary  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  certain  persons  in  our  state  were  calling' 
for  reliable  information  on  each  of  these  points. 

A plant  at  Sioux  Falls,  South  Dakota,  is  operating  under  a 
modification  of  the  Huennecke  System.  Iowa  has  three  plants, 
located  at  Waterloo,  Cedar  Rapids,  and  Clinton.  At  Clinton, 
sand  is  pumped  from  the  bed  of  the  ^Mississippi  River.  At  Cedar 
Rapids  (Fig.  81)  the  source  is  in  the  bed  of  the  Iowa  River. 
Here  200  yards  of  sand  are  pumped  daily.  The  coarse  grains 
are  screened  out  and  used  for  roofing  in  the  city.  Besides  sup- 
plying the  brick  plant  the  local  trade  is  furnished  with  sand. 
The  brick  sand  is  dried  and  crushed  to  sizes  ranging  between 
the  50-mesh  and  150-mesh.  It  is  then  stored  in  a bin  from  which 
it  is  fed  to  the  mixers.  The  lime  is  hydrated  before  it  is  mixed 
with  the  sand.  The  press,  the  cylinders  and  other  equipment 
are  similar  to  those  at  Hastings,  Nebraska.  The  cost  of  in- 
stallation was  about  $30,000.  The  plant  has  a capacity  of 
20,000  bricks  a day,  but  averages'  17,600.  The  bricks  have 
ready  sale  in  Cedar  Rapids,  and  are  used  mostly  for  interior 
walls. 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


185 


Productions  of  sand-lime  brick  in  the  United  States  in  1905  and  1906,  by  States* 

1905 


Num- 

Common  brick 

Front 

brick 

Fancj 

' brick 

ber  of 

State 

oper- 

ating 

firms 

Quan- 

Quan- 

Quan- 

Blocks, 

Total 

tity. 

(tnou- 

Value 

tity. 

(thou- 

Value 

tity. 

(thou- 

Value 

value. 

Value 

ing 

sands). 

sands). 

sands). 

3 

1,552 

$11,645 

(a) 

(a) 

$23,727 

Arizona,  Colorado, 

Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington   

5 

725 

5,947 

1,281 

$15,151 

(a) 

(a) 

$121 

21,289 

Arkansas.  Kansas, 

Minnesota.  Nebras- 
ka. South  Dakota, 

9 

20,425 

4.215 

133,784 

2,490 

30,480 

164,264 

tlLiU  1 

•da.li  fnrnifj. 

5 

32,534 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

34,689 

Delaware,  Maryland 

New  Jersey,  and 

V 1 vix\ ni  a. 

7 

12,401 

80,639 

587 

7,237 

(a) 

(a) 

88,876 

Florida,  Kentucky. 

Missi.ssiT>pi.  South 
Carolina  and  Ten- 

$500 

107.470 

n 

10 

12.025 

89,900 

1,650 

17.070 

2b 

4 

4,451 

25.524 

350 

2.875 

28.399 

Illinois  and  Wisconsin 

(a) 

(a) 

Indiana. 

6 

11,413 

57,655 

800- 

7,500 

65.905 

Iowa 

3 

3,974 

28,793 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

1,384 

38,652 

TVTi  phi  pn  n 

12 

24.841 

155,883 

1,577 

12,893 

(a) 

(a) 

169.302 

11,841 

81.804 

3,478 

41,300 

123,104 

^ortti  C£trolin<i 

3 

3,185 

2.193 

20.953 

660 

8, 1 50 

29,103 

Ohio 

4 

12,351 

(a) 

(a) 

14.058 

T^pnn*5vl  vn.nia. 

6 

5,890 

46,290 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

63,226 

Other  States  (b)  

3.689 

39,863 

173 

3,838 

(c) 

Total 

84 

119,131 

783,702 

6.58 

16,562 

182.51^ 
! 1 .02 

198 

4.338 

1,505 

972,064 

Average  value  per  M. 

21.91 

1906 


Alabama.  Kentucky. 

Mississippi,  and 

Tennessee 

6 

6,877 

$51,079 

1.276 

$11,917 

Arkansas,  Kansas, 

Minnesota,  Nebras- 

ka. South  Dakota, 

and  Texas  

8 

14,877 

98,1-28 

1,897 

17.962 

•California 

4 

4.837 

38.789 

1.900 

•22,400 

Colorado  and  Idaho .. 

4 

569 

6,043 

2,191 

22.743 

Delaware  Maryland 

and  Virginia 

4 

9,403 

61,719 

(a) 

(a) 

Florida 

8 

1 1 ,678 

83,306 

(a) 

(a) 

•Georgia 

3 

5,139 

37,701 

(a) 

(a) 

Illinois  and  Wisconsin 

4 

8,150 

49.150 

690 

6.060 

Indiana  

6 

17,077 

84,361 

326 

2,474 

Iowa 

3 

3,921 

28,271 

(a) 

(a) 

Michigan 

11 

27.281 

162,879 

1,796 

12,022 

New  Jersey 

3 

6.520 

49,143 

New  York 

9 

21.288 

169,2.57 

1,910 

22.064 

North  Carolina 

3 

3,147 

22,225 

(a) 

(a) 

•Ohio 

4 

1,232 

7,049 

(a) 

(a) 

Pennsylvania  

7 

6.673 

.50,211 

978 

12,710 

Other  States  (b)  

2,718 

32.963 

Total 

^7 

F48.669~ 

997,3n 

15,682 

163,315 

Average  value  per  M 

1 6.71 

10.42 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

U) 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

(a) 

121 

$3,473 

$5,876 

5,876 

121 

1 3.473 

1 28  70 

$63,026 


114,390 

61.189 

31,464 

67.119 

89.306 

40.701 

55,210 

86.880 

38.255 

174.921 

50.143 

191,321 

32,975 

10,184 

62,921 

(e) 


1,1  7w,iJ<j5 


* Eckftl,  Edwin  C..  Mineral  Re.sources  of  the  United  States.  1906. 
a Included  in  other  States. 

b Includes  all  products  made  by  less  than  three  producers  in  one  State,  to  prevent  dA- 
«losinif  individual  operations. 

c The  total  of  Other  Stites  is  distributed  among  the  Stat  ;s  to  which  it  belongs  in  order 
that  they  may  be  fully  represented  in  the  totals. 


186 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


The  Plant  at  Hastings. — This  is  owned  by  the  Hastings 
Hydraulic  Pressed  Brick  Company.  The  plant  was  installed 
in  1904  at  a cost  of  about  $27,000.  It  operates  under  the  Si'o 
System,  which  in  most  respects  differs  only  slightly  from  the 
method  already  described. 

The  sand  supply  is  obtained  from  the  Platte,  near  Powell.  It 
is  ground  to  the  proper  condition,  mixed  with  lime,  the  pro- 
portions usually  being  10  of  sand  to  one  of  lime,  but  varying 
with  the  quality  of  the  latter.  The  bricks,  after  being  pressed 
into  form,  are  hardened  for  10  hours  in  a large  cylinder  (Figure 
8 ) in  which  the  steam  pressure  is  175  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  production  is  used  for  general  building  and  for  facing  in 
Hastings.  Not  much  of  it  is  shipped  to  other  towns. 


ENGINE  SAND. 

This  is  so  named  on  account  of  • its  use  on  railroad 
engines.  AMien  applied  to  the  rails  it  tends  to  keep 
the  drive  wheels  from  slipping  on  grades  and  slick  places.  In 
other  words,  it  assists  the  engine  in  startingand  drawing  a large 
tonnage.  x\s  the  railroads  lessen  their  grades  there  is,  of  course,, 
a decrease  in  the  demand  for  engine  sand;  however,  since  the 
tonnage  drawn  by  each  engine  is  correspondingly  increased  we 
can  see  no  cause  for  a decrease  in  the  quantity  of  sand  used 
for  this  purpose.  The  consumption  is  largest  in  the  spring  and 
summer  months  when  green  grass  and  weeds  are  crushed  on 
the  track,  making  it  slippery.  The  smallest  consumption  is 
when  the  roads  are  covered  with  snow.  At  such  a time  the 
tubes  which  carry  sand  from  the  turrets  to  the  drive  whee’s 
and  track  become  clogged  with  snow  and  ice,  consequently  the 
sand  cannot  be  readily  applied,  though  it  is  badly  needed. 

There  is  no  general  agreement  as  to  the  requisites  for  an 
engine  sand.  Some  engineers  prefer  coarse  sand;  others,  fine. 
After  having  talked  with  persons  who  prepare  the  sand  and 
with  those  who  use  it,  the  writer  has  come  to  the  conclusion 


USKS  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


187 


that  an  engine  sand  should  be  composed  of  hard  minerals, 
preferably  quartz,  and  that  it  should  be  sharp,  clean,  fairly 
even  grained,  and  of  a medium  degree  of  fineness.  It  should 
be  coarse  enough  to  remain  on  the  rail  in  a moderately  strong 
wind.  According  to  this  specification,  there  is  no  sand  ideally 
fitted  for  this  purpose  in  the  state.  Platte  sand  fil’s  the  demand, 
except  that  it  is  not  sharp.  However,  practically  all  en- 
neers  who  use  this  product  claim  that  it  is  one  of  the  best 
known  engine  sands.  That  it  is  used  very  generally  by  rail- 
roads in  the  state  and  shipped  to  division  points  in  Iowa  and 
Missouri,  would  seem  to  prove  its  fitness.  The  facts  wouTl 
seem  to  indicate  that  sharp  grains  are  not  a necessary  property 
of  engine  sand.  Very  probably  the  crushing  which  comes  when 
the  drive  wheels  pass  onto  and  over  the  sand  fractures  its 
grains  into  sharp  angular  bits,  thus  giving  to  the  sand  a quality 
which  it  did  not  possess  in  its  natural  condition.  That  being 
true,  it  is  easy  to  understand  why  a quartz  sand  is  superior  to 
one  containing  much  feldspar. 

The  processes  of  preparing  engine  sand  are  simple.  Data 
were  secured  from  railroad  officials,  from  Mr.  W.  Gab’e  and  by 
a personal  study  of  the  method  involved.  At  the  Burlington’s 
sand  house,  Lincoln,  we  have  a sand  preparation  which  is 
typical.  The  sand  house  is  lo  x 40  feet,  ground  plan,  and 
three  stories  high.  It  is  served  by  three  tracks,  one  being 
elevated  to  carry  the  incoming  sand.  The  other  tracks,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  house,  are  used  by  engines  whi’e  sanding 
their  turrets  or  for  loading  cars  for  shipment.  The  green  sand 
is  stored  in  two  large  bins  which  occupy  the  second  story  of 
the  building  (Fig.  82).  The  third  story  has  two  I)ins  for  the 
storage  of  dried  sand.  y\  third  bin  of  this  kind  stands  o])])osite 
the  elevated  track  to  the  south,  d'he  first  story  of  the  building 
has  one  large  room  in  which  are  two  sand  heaters  or  stoves. 
Each  stove  is  enclosed  by  an  iron  jacket  jierforated  in  its  lower 
part  with  holes  one  inch  in  diameter  and  about  four  inches 
apart.  Each  stove  drum,  about  two  feet  in  diameter,  extends 
upward  on  the  inside  of  the  jacket  to  the  floor  of  the  sand 


188 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


room.  At  this  point  it  contracts  to  a diameter  of  about  six 
inches.  The  upper  end  of  the  jacket  is  expanded  about  the 
drum  so  that  sand  may  settle  or  feed  downward  between  the 
jacket  and  stove.  By  this  arrangement,  the  sand  is  brought 
into  contact  with  the  stove  while  moving  downward.  Heat  de- 
hydrates the  sand,  causing  it  to  run  freely  and  to  escape  through 
the  holes  in  the  lower  end  of  the  jacket.  Sand  moisture  escapes 
through  the  holes  in  the  jacket  as  steam  during  the  process. 
The  sand  slides  over  a hopper  to  a screen  located  between  the 
stoves.  It  passes  this  screen  and  is  caught  in  a storage  bin. 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


189 


The  bin  under  the  screen  has  a capacity  of  about  one  yard  of 
sand.  From  this  place  the  dehydrated  product  is  blov^n  to  the 
storage  bins  at  the  top  of  the  building.  These  bins  are.  con- 
structed so  that  their  contents,  when  released,  run  by  gravity 
through  tubes  to  the  sand  turrets  of  the  engines  (Fig.  83),  or 
to  cars  for  shipment. 


Fig.  83.  Sanding  an  Engine 

The  plant  dehydrates  from  three  to  five  or  six  cars  of  sand  a 
week.  The  product  is  used  on  all  of  the  engines  which  run 
out  of  Lincoln  and  a part  of  it,  one  car  every  three  days,  is 
shipped  to  Hastings,  Grand  Island,  York,  Ashland  and  other 
sanding  points  on  the  division. 


190 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


A railroad  engine  is  so  constructed  as  to  carry  fuel,  water 
and  sand — the  three  materials  which  it  consumes.  Sand  is 
carried  in  the  turrets  or  hump-like  elevations  above  the  boiler. 
These  hold  from  1 500  to  3000  pounds  each. 

BEDDING  SAND. 

The  practice  of  bedding  stock  cars  with  sand  is  very 
common  and  general  in  Nebraska.  The  sand  is  hauled 
to  the  yards  from  local  pits  by  team,  or  shipped  in.  At 
some  towns,  whole  trains  of  stock  cars  are  run  onto  a spur  in 
a sand  pit  and  the  bedding  shoveTed  in  by  hand.  The  sand  is 
strewn  about  the  car  to  a depth  of  about  one  inch.  It  is  better 
suited  for  this  purpose  than  straw  or  hay.  Any  fine  sand  will 
meet  the  requirements  whether  clean  or  dirty.  The  bedding 
sand  which  comes  from  the  dredging  stations  is  ^oaded  from 
just  below  the  soil.  Some  of  this  is  shipped  to  South  Omaha 
and  there  used  for  bedding  cars  which  carry  stock  to  Chicago. 

MOLDING  SAND. 

There  is  need  for  a larger  supply  of  this  material 
in  the  state.  Nearly  all  of  the  present  supply  is  shipped  in 
from  Illinois  and  other  states,  some  of  it  coming  from  near 
Albany,  New  York.  IMolding  sand  is  found  near  Blue  Springs^ 
Endicott,  Lincoln  and  South  Bend  and  probably  at  other  places 
in  Nebraska,  however,  it  is  not  suited  for  the  best  grade  of  foun- 
dry work.  That  an  adequate  supply  of  molding  sand  may  be 
found  eventually  in  the  state  seems  probable.  A more  careful 
search  following  along  the  line  of  contact  between  the  loess 
and  glacial  materials  may  reveal  it.  Such  sands  are  thoroughly 
leached  at  places  and  hence  they  contain  a low  percent  of  flux- 
ing compounds,  which  is  a necessary  condition. 

The  Dempster  IMill  l\Ifg.  Co.  of  Beatrice  have  supplied  the 
writer  wit.h  specimens  of  Nebraska  sands  which  they  have 
used. 

Properties  of  Molding  Sand. — The  sand  usually  is  discolored 
by  iron  and  clay;  consequently  most  persons  would  identify  it 
as  an  arenaceous  clay.  The  colors  are  brownish  to  reddish. 
The  sand  is  usually  fine  grained  and  sharp.  It  is  composed  al- 
most wholly  of  free  quartz  grains  and  a c’ay  binder.  “The  size 
of  the  quartz  grains  determines  the  grade  of  the  sand.”  Small 


USES  OF  S \ND  AND  GRAVEL 


191 


bits  of  feldspar  may  be  present,  but  their  quantity  shoukl  be 
small.  The  silica  is  “free”  in  quartz  and  combined  in  clay. 
The  clay  should  be  as  free  from  fluxing  alkalies  as  possible. 
The  sand  must  be  sufflciently  porous  to  permit  of  the  free 
movement  and  escape  of  gases  but  tenacious  enough  to  hold 
form.  Sand  grains  give  porocity  and  the  clay  binder  is  the 
principal  factor  in  producing  tenacity.  “The  larger  the  quartz 
particles  the  more  porous  will  the  sand  be.  It  will  be  apparent 
however,  that  the  size  is  limited  from  the  fact  that  a sand 
cannot  be  too  coarse  and  still  give  a finish  to  the  casting.” 
Molding  sand  should  be  refractory,  i.  e.  able  to  stand  a high 
degree  of  heat. 

“Free  silica  gives  grain,  refractoriness,  porosity,  and  low 
shrinkage  to  the  sand,  while  the  silicate  of  alumina  furnishes 
bond.  Free  silica  would  be  useless  without  the  silicate  of 
alumina,  as  it  would  not  hold  together.  Silicate  of  alumina 
would  be  worthless  without  free  silica,  as  it  would  not  have 
sufficient  porosity  and  would  have  too  great  a shrinkage.”* 

“It  is  very  necessary  that  a sand  be  chosen  with  a low  per- 
centage of  strong  bond  rather  than  a large  percentage  of 
weak  bond.”  “The  strength  of  a molding  sand  determines  its 
adaptability  for  different  kinds  of  work.”  “The  strength  of 
sand  depends  upon  the  three  conditions;  first  the  proportion  of 
bond;  second  the  strength  of  the  bond;  and  third  the  shape 
of  the  quartz  silica  particles.-”* 

The  chemical  composition  varies  considerable.  There  are 
6o  to  70  per  cent  of  silica  in  the  free  quartz  and  about  15  percent 
more  in  the  clay,  i.  e.  in  the  silicate  of  alumina.  According' 
to  H.  E.  Field  a good  molding  will  have  the  following  limits: 


In  1905,  the  production  of  molding  sand,  as  reported  by  the 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  was  3,084,098  short  tons.  Its  value 

♦Field,  Ir  >n  1 rade  Review,  1»(X5. 


Total  silica 
Alumina 
Lime  below 
Alkalies  below 
Oxide  of  iron  below 


75  to  85  per  cent 
7 to  10  per  cent 
2 per  cent 
0.5  per  cent 
6 per  cent 


192 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


was  about  $2,102,423.  This  includes  that  used  for  molding 
iron,  steel,  brass,  brick  and  pottery.  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  and  Illinois  lead  in  production. 

GLASS  SAND  AND  THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY 

There  is  a demand  for  glass  production  in  Nebraska.  Cer- 
tain persons  are  insistent  upon  the  fitness  of  our  sands  for  the 
purpose  and  are  speaking  favorably  of  the  other  conditions 
which  also  control  the  installation  of  plants.  We  are  not  yet 
ready  to  say  that  the  conditions  do,  or  do  not,  favor  the  making 
of  glass  in  the  state  and  this  after  having  visited  and  studied 
the  production  in  southeastern  Kansas  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
St.  Louis.  It  seems,  however,  that  we  should  describe  the 
properties  of  glass  sand,  briefly  outline  the  method  of  manufac- 
ture and  note  the  factors  which  control  successful  production. 

Air.  Ernest  F.  Burchard  has  studied  and  described  practically 
all  of  the  centers  of  glass  production  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
All  of  the  writer’s  references,  quoted  in  this  connection,  are 
taken  from  Air.  Burchard’s  reports  in  bulletins  285  and  315  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

Nature  of  Glass. — “Glass  is  a fused  mixture  of  the  silicates  of 
alkalies,  alkaline  earths,  and  of  the  more  common  metals.” 
The  principal  classes  are  plate,  window,  bottle,  and  flint  glass. 

The  leading  glass-making  materials  are  sand.  Si  O2 ; salt 
cake,  Na2S04;  limestone,  Ca  C O3;  sodium  carbonate,  Na2- 
C O3;  carbon,  C;  and  salts  of  lead,  manganese,  antimony  and 
arsenic. 

Sodium  nitrate,  Na  N O3 ; potassium  carbonate,  K2  C O3; 
and  slaked  lime,  Ca  (OH)2  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  flint 
glass.  Not  all  o,f  these  are  placed  in  any  one  batch,  and  their 
proportions  vary  in  the  different  types  of  glass.  Sand  is  the 
major  constituent  of  glass.  To  it  is  due  the  hardness,  con- 
choidal  fracture,  brittleness,  brilliancy,  transparency  and  ab- 
sence of  color,  (when  pure).  Oxides  of  the  metals  give  the 
colors.  The  a’kalies  and  alkaline  earths  are  the  fluxing  agents. 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


193 


‘‘In  melting  together  the  various  ingredients  employed  in  the 
batch  or  mixture  it  appears  that  silica  under  the  influence  of 
heat  in  the  presence  of  a flux,  forms  silicates  with  sodium  or 
potassium  and  calcium,  lead,  etc.,  and  the  alkaline  silicate  then 
dissolves  the  remaining  silicates.  It  is  this  solution  that  solidi- 
fies into  glass  on  cooling.” 

Quality  of  Sand  Required. — “The  sand  should  be  nearly 
white  in  color,  it  should  be  of  medium  fineness  passing  a 20  to 
50-mesh  sieve.  The  grains  should  be  uniform  in  size,  even, 
and  angular  or  less  preferably  they  may  be  round.”  “In  a mix- 
ture of  coarse  and  fine  sand  the  finer  sand  is  liable  to  settle  to 
the  bottom  of  the  batch,  thus  preventing  an  even  mixture  of  the 
materials  and  producing  in  consequence  a glass  uneven  in 
texture.” 

“An  excess  of  the  chief  impurity,  iron,  is  usually  avoided  in 
the  quarries  by  a careful  selection  of  the  whitest  sand,  although 
the  whitest  sand  is  not  invariably  the  purest.  Clay  materials 
are  objectionable  because  they  cloud  the  glass.” 

“The  quality  of  the  glass  depends  largely  on  the  quality  of 
the  sand.  For  the  finest  flint  ware,  such  as  optical  and  cut 
glass,  water  whiteness,  absolute  transparency,  great  brilliance, 
and  uniform  density  are  required,  and  only  the  purest  sand  can 
be  employed,  since  slight  impurities,  especially  small  quantities 
of  iron,  tend  to  destroy  these  effects.  For  plate  and  window 
glass,  which  are  commonly  pale  green,  absolute  purity  is  not  so 
essential,  but  generally  the  sand  should  not  carry  more  than 
two  tenths  percent  of  ferric  oxide.  Green  and  amber  glass  for 
bottles,  and  rough  structural  work  can  be  made  from  relatively 
impure  sand. 

It  is  not  possible  to  establish  an  invariable  rule  in  which  a 
certain  percent  of  silica  is  required.  The  so-called  impurity  in 
the  sand  may  be  of  the  nature  of  a fluxing  agent,  such  as 
might  be  used,  and  if  so  it  decreases  the  relative  amount  of 
silica  but  does  not  cause  deleterious  effects.  Usually,  however, 
a glass,  sand  should  contain  96  percent  or  more  of  silica,  the 
amount  varying  with  the  grade  of  glass  produced.  The  fol- 


194 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


lowing  analyses  are  from  Mr.  Burchard’s  paper  in  bulletin  215, 
United  States  Geological  Survey. 

ANALYSES  OF  GLASS  USED  BY  AMERICAN  WINDOG  GLASS 

COMPANY. 


Constituent 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

Silica  ( Si02  ) 

99.990 

99.714 

99.659 

99.579 

Alumina  ( AI0O3  ) 

.008 

.280 

.310 

.350 

Iron  Oxide  ( Fe203  ) 

Slight  trace 

.006 

.011 

.021 

Lime  and  Mag’nesia  (CaO 
and  MgfO. ) 

.002 

.020 

.020 

.050 

100.000 

100.020 

100.000 

100.000 

No.  I is  suitable  for  the  very  highest  grades  of  glassware  and 
flint  glass.  Nos.  2 and  3 are  suitable  for  tableware,  plate 
^lass,  chimneys,  prescription  ware,  etc.  and  No.  4 is  used 
for  window  glass. 

The  following  analyses  are  submitted  by  the  Pittsburg  Plate 
Glass  Company  as  samples  of  sand  used  by  its  plants: 


ANALYSES  OF  GLASS  SAND  BY  BY  PITTSBURG  PLATE  GLASS 

COMPANY. 


Constituent 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

Silica  ( Si  O2  ) 

99.21 

98.90 

98.95 

98.94 

Alumina  ( AI2O3  ) 

.30 

.20 

.50 

.30 

Volatily  Matter 

.21 

.25 

.24 

.23 

Iron  Oxide  { Fe203  ) 

.003 

.002 

.0024 

.0036 

Lime  (CaO) 

.20 

.54 

.30 

.40 

Magnesia  (MgO)  

Trace 

.20 

.10 

Trace 

99.923 

100.092 

100.0924 

99.8736 

USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


195 


For  sands  with  analyses  comparable  with  the  above,  no 
decolorization  is  attempted  in  manufacturing  plate  glass.  Sand 
containing  more  iron  than  is  shown  in  the  tables  may  be  used 
in  making  green  glass  bottles  and  cheap  glassware,  or,  with 
the  addition  of  decolorizing  agents,  in  making  window  glass. 

Analyses  of  undeveloped  glass  sand  from  various  localities. 


Constituent 

Location 

Sample 

Silica  (Si02) 

Alumina 

(AI203) 

Iron  Oxide 
(Fe  2o3) 

Lime  (CaO) 

.2 

<vO 

c 

big 

Other  items 

Total 

1 

Authority 

ALABAMA 

Gate  City 

Sand 

99.80 

0.75 

0.31 

0,05 

0.10 

aO.lO 

100.11 

R.  S.  Hodges,  Uni- 
versity, Ala. 

Do 

Sandstone  ... 

97.22 

1.88 

.24 

.06 

.09 

.21 

99.70 

Do. 

Irondale 

do 

97.93 

98.05 

98.30 

1.05 

.19 

.20 

.19 

.06 

.33 

.12 

99.68 

Do. 

Trussville 

Do 

Sand 

.22 

.98 

Tr. 

.09 

.78 

,02 

.09 

99.25 

99.67 

E,  S,  Campbell, 
Trussville,  Ala, 

R.  S.  Hodges,  Uni- 
versity, Ala. 

N o rth  Birmingham. . . 

Sandstone.. .. 

97.30 

1.39 

.33 

.07 

.18 

.16 

99.43 

Do. 

ARKANSAS 

Guyon 

Sandstone.. . . 

99.52 

Tr. 

.054 

Tr. 

Tr. 

b.016 

99.59 

R.  V.  Pepperberg, 
University  of  Neb., 
Lincoln,  Neb. 

FLORIDA 

Beach  sand,  Gulf  of 
Mexico  at  Pensacola 

Crude  

99.65 

(c) 

99.65 

George  Steiger,  U. 
S.  Geological  Sur- 
vey 

IOWA 

‘Sioux  City,  Spring- 
dale  station 

Averaged 

96.90 

1.22 

.28 

.14 

.05 

bl.07 

99.66 

George  Steiger,  U. 
S.  Geological 
Survey 

KANSAS 

Greenwood  County, 
SE.  M sec.  13.  T.  28 
S..  R.  12  E. 

1 

I Selected 
i from  differ- 
!■  ent  beds 

1 18.24 

.57 

.35 

.06 

.04 

.72 

99.98 

George  Steiger,  U. 
S.  Geological 
Survey 

Do 

I 

same  verti- 

97.81 

.73 

.35 

.18 

.05 

.80 

99.92 

Do. 

Do 

J 

I cal  section. 

\98.02 

.81 

.26 

.08 

.06 

.81 

100.04 

Do. 

Fall  River,  M mile 

97.28 

.96 

.80 

.13 

.04 

.73 

99.94 

Do. 

east  of  Frisco  rail- 
road station. 

MISSOURI 

^Versailles 

NEBRASKA 

Averaged  ... 

99.03 

.40 

.13 

.29 

.11 

.44 

100.40 

George  Steiger,  U, 
S.  Geological 
Survey 

Robbers’  Cave,  near 
. Lincoln. 

Crude 

95.76 

.48 

1.81 

.24 

.16 

dl.55 

100.00 

George  Borrowman, 
University  of  Ne- 
braska, Lincoln, 
Nebr. 

a Ti02  b Loss  on  ignition  c None  d Undetermined 


196 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Preparation  of  Glass  Sand. — ‘‘The  method  of  treatment  of 
glass  sand  depends  on  the  character  of  the  deposit  and  on  its 
position.  The  materials  used  for  glass  sand  in  central  United 
States  are  mainly  bedded  sandstones,  and  a complete  process 
of  preparation  includes  quarrying,  breaking,  crushing,  and 
grinding  into  component  grains,  screening,  washing,  draining, 
drying  and  final  screening  to  various  sizes.  Some  beds  of  sand- 
stones are  so  loose  and  friable  that  they  can  be  reduced  by  a 
strong  hydraulic  jet;  some  producers  dispense  with  the  opera- 
tion of  washing  their  sand,  others  do  not  dry  it.  It  has  been 
shown  that  washing  improves  the  quality  of’ sand  of  the  highest 
grade.  It  is  mistaken  economy  to  neglect  this  important  phase 
of  treatment  on  account  of  the  expense  of  installing  washers, 
for  the  price  of 'sand,  and  often  its  use  or  rejection,  is  affected 
by  the  small  percentage  of  impurity  that  may  be  washed  away. 
Two  methods  of  washing  are  followed.  One  method  involves 
several  sets  of  bins,  into  which  sand  and  water  are  elevated  or 
pumped  so  that  the  sand  settles  quickly  while  the  finer  im- 
purities are  washed  away;  the  other  employs  a crude,  open-top 
pug  mill,  in  which  rotating  “augurs”  or  screws  move  the  sand 
up  inclined  troughs,  rolling  it  over  and  over  so  that  by  attract- 
ion it  is  freed  from  a large  portion  of  its  impurities  and  stain, 
and  the  impurities  are  then  readily  removed  by  a stream  of 
water  playing  down  the  troughs. 

Drying  is  affected  by  three  general  types  of  apparatus:  (i) 
rotary  cylinders,  through  which  the  sand  passes  against  a draft 
of  flame  and  hot  gas;  (2)  a stationary  roaster,  and  (3)  coils 
of  steam  pipes.  The  first  method  involves  the  greatest  initial 
cost,  but  is  by  far  the  most  rapid  and  efficient.” 

Southeastern  Kansas  District^. — “There  are  now  21  plants 
in  the  field,  including  one  just  across  the  line  at  Bartlesville, 
Oklahoma,  all  using  natural  gas  for  fuel.  These  glass  factories 
are  located  as  follows:  Coffeyville,  7;  Independence,  3;  Peru, 

2;  Chanute,  2;  Altoona,  2;  Caney,  Cherryvale,  Neodesha, 
Fredonia,  and  Bartlesville,  i each.  Many  of  them  have  been 
moved  from  the  waning  gas  fields  of  Indiana,  attracted  by 


USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


19*1 


the  cheapness  and  abundance  of  gas  in  the  new  field.  Whereas 
the  cost  of  producer  gas  or  of  gas  made  from  oil  in  the  St.  Louis 
district,  and  in  Indiana  and  Pennsylvania,  is  from  8 to  12  cents 
per  thousand  cubic  feet,  Kansas  manufacturers  are  paying  only 
3 cents  per  thousand  for  natural  gas  and  some  plants  are  said 
to  obtain  it  as  low  as  2 cents.  No  plate  glass  is  made  in  this 
field  at  present,  but  practically  all  the  other  grades  of  window 
glass  and  all  the  wares  of  glass  except  the  finest  material  for 
chemical  and  optical  purposes  are  made.” 

“At  Cofifeyville  three  plants  make  window  glass,  and  certain 
of  the  others  make  bottles,  fruit  jars,  table  ware,  and  lantern 
chimneys.  All  three  plants  at  Independence  and  the  plant  at 
Fredonia  make  window  glass.  The  plant  at  Caney  makes  a 
variety  of  wares.  That  at  Coffeyville  makes  a special  feature 
of  tumblers  and  table  ware,  using  an  excellent  grade  of  clear 
lead-flint  glass.  At  Neodesha  flasks  and  prescription  bottles 
of  flint  glass  are  made.  Sand  is  supplied  mostly  from  the  belt 
west  of  St.  Louis  and  the  freight  charges  bring  the  total  cost 
of  material  per  ton  to  about  four  times  its  selling  price.  A 
little  sand  has  been  imported  from  the  Ottawa,  111.,  district  at  a 
total  cost  per  ton  of  nearly  eight  times  its  selling  price.  In 
regard  to  limestone  supplies  the  Kansas  factories  are  situated 
more  advantageously.  Some  crushed  limestone  has  been  ob- 
tained from  neighboring  cement  mills  and  considerable  is 
shipped  from  Sedan.  Still  it  seems  necessary  to  import  the 
greater  portion  of  it  from  Missouri  points.  Ash  Grove  being 
an  important  center.  Salt  cake  is  brought  from  Argentine, 
Kansas,  and  the  Kansas  plants  are  thus  nearer  to  this  impor- 
tant requisite  than  any  others  except  one  located  at  Kansas 
City.  The  first  plants  erected  in  southeastern  Kansas  were  pot 
furnaces,  but  of  the  more  recent  ones  nearly  all  are  continuous- 
tank  furnaces.  The  continuous-tank  system,  while  involving 
a much  greater  initial  expense,  is  estimated  to  increase  the 
output  about  40  per  cent  over  that  of  the  pot  furnace,  with  the 
same  amount  of  fuel  and  labor,  besides  producing  a more  uni- 
form quality  of  glass.  At  Coffeyville,  fruit  jars  are  blown 


198 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGIDAL  SURVEY 


with  compressed  air  by  a system  of  automatic  blowpipes  and 
molds. 

St.  Louis  District. — About  eight  factories  are  situated  in 
this  district — two  at  St.  Louis,  one  at  Valley  Park,  and  one  at 
Crystal  City,  Missouri,  and  one  each  at  East  St.  Louis,  Belle- 
ville, Alton,  and  Litchfield,  Illinois. The  factories  in  St.  Louis 
are  situated  well,  between  the  sand,  35  miles  or  more  to  the 
west,  and  the  Illinois  coal  fields  10  to  15  miles  to  the  east.  The 
other  factories  range  in  location  from  the  one  situated  on  the 
glass  sand  at  Crystal  City  to  the  one  situated  on  the  coal  at 
Belleville.  Producer  gas  from  southern  Illinois  coal  is  com- 
monly employed  as  fuel,  although  one  furnace  at  Alton  is  fired 
direct  from  coal.  Plate  glass  is  made  by  Pittsburg  firms  at 
Crystal  City  and  Valley  Park.  The  factory  at  Crystal  City 
has  been  established  about  thirty  years.  Its  present  capacity 
is  two  furnaces  of  20  pots  each.  A new  pot  house  is  under 
construction,  and  other  new  buildings  of  a value  of  $2,000,000 
are  under  contract.  The  factory  at  Valley  Park  has  been 
erected  within  the  last  few  years.  It  contains  four  furnaces  of 
20  pots  each. 

The  main  products  of  the  other  factories  are  bottles  of  var- 
ious grades,  certain  ones  making  beer  bottles  exclusively.  The 
plant  at  Alton,  said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  United  States,  makes 
bottles  of  every  description,  besides  miscellaneous  articles  from 
both  common  and  flint  glass.  Eight  glass  houses  are  operated 
at  Alton,  both  the  pot  and  the  continuous-tank  systems  being 
employed.’’ 

Economic  Aspects. — Persons  contemplating  the  matter  of 
glass  manufacture  in  Nebraska  should  consider  both  the  fa- 
vorable and  the  unfavorable  factors  which  will  operate  at  a 
given  place.  According  to  Mr.  Burchard,  the  following  factors 
largely  regulate  the  value  of  a glass  sand  deposit. 

1.  Chemical  and  physical  nature  of  the  sand. 

2.  Amount  available. 

3.  Location  with  respect  to  a cheap  fuel  supply. 

4.  Condition  of  quarrying  or  mining. 


USES^OP  SAND  AND  GRAVEL 


199 


5.  Location  with  respect  to  transportation  routes. 

6.  Location  with  respect  to  markets. 

It  may  be  said  that  our  state  has  no  high  grade  glass  sand, 
i.  e.  one  with  a high  percent  or  of  unstained  silica.  It  has  a 
large  quantity  of  low  grade  and  medium  grade  sand  that  would 
do  for  the  manufacture  of  structural  glasses  and  probably  for 
the  making  of  a few  of  the  cheaper  wares.  This  sand  occurs 
in  the  Dakota  Formation  in  the  eastern  counties  and  in  certain 
Tertiary  deposits  near  Valentine,  Cherry  County.  The  Da- 
kota is  most  favorably  exposed  at  or  near  Ponca,  Tekamah, 
Ashland,  Lincoln,  Beatrice,  and  in  the  southern  part  of  Jeffer- 
son County.  This  sand  would  require  washing,  probably  with 
acid,  to  remove  its  iron  stain. 

The  chief  drawback  in  Nebraska  will  be  the  high  price  of 
fuel,  for  this  is  the  chief  and  controlling  factors  in  locating 
glass  factories, — even  more  so  than  the  sand.  This  is  true 
of  Southeastern  Kansas  where  cheap  gas  has  drawn  the 
plants.  A ton  of  coal  is  required  for  every  ton  of  glass  pro- 
duced. “Therefore  it  is  important  that  plants  using  coal 
should  be  relatively  near  a sand  supply.” 

“A  deposit  so  thin  as  20  feet  should  have  an  areal  extent 
of  at  least  20  acres  of  good  sand  in  sight  to  warrant  the  erection 
of  a mill  and  trackage.  Most  deposits  are  thicker  than  20 
feet,  but  it  would  be  safer  to  have  a much  higher  ratio  be- 
tween areal  extent  and  thickness  than  the  minimum  given. 
Where  ledges  of  sand  require  stripping  of  overlying  limestone, 
the  limestone  may  in  certain  cases  be  of  such  purity  that  it 
also  could  be  used  for  glass  making;  if  this  is  not  the  case  other 
uses  should  be  sought  for  it  as  a by-product.  In  regard  to  fuel, 
every  plant  turning  out  glass  sand  in  quantity  sufficient  to  net 
a profit  must  be  equipped  with  power  for  moving  the  sand  and 
drying  it,  and  in  most  cases  with  equipment  for  cleaning  it  as 
well.  The  margin  of  profit  is  at  present  so  low  that  the  cost 
of  preparation  can  not  reasonably  stand  freight  charges  on 
coal  for  more  than  50  miles.  Natural  gas  would  be  a suitable 
fuel,  especially  in  the  operation  of  rotary  driers.  In  respect  to 


200  NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

transportation  routes,  the  general  principle  “the  more  avail- 
able the  better”  is  applicable.  Aside  from  the  necessity  of  se- 
curing fair  and  uniform  freight  rates  experience  has  shown, 
especially  where  the  dependence  is  on  only  one  railroad  for 
transportation,  that  shortness  of  cars  at  certain  seasons  may 
seriously  handicap  a plant  in  its  shipments  and  lead  to  can- 
cellation of  many  orders.  In  respect  to  markets,  it  must  be 
considered  that  sand  is,  for  its  value,  one  of  the  bulkiest  pro- 
ducts, and  therefore  one  whose  cost  to  the  consumer  is  greatly 
influenced  by  distance.  At  the  same  time  the  question  of 
permanence  of  markets  must  be  considered. 

“Some  of  the  large  sand  properties,  together  with  their 
mills,  represent  an  outlay  of  about  $75,000,  a sum  that  requires 
good  business  judgment  for  its  investment,  and  subsequent 
careful  management  in  order  to  keep  it  paying  adequate 
interest.  Strong  competition  in  the  Middle  States  has  forced 
prices  down  very  low  at  present,  and  competition  in  the  form 
of  the  small  producer  who  leases  a sand  bank  and  works  out 
by  hand  and  team  all  the  choice  sand  within  convenient 
distance  and  then  abandons  the  quarry,  having  figured  only 
daily  wages  to  himself  as  profit,  has  resulted  in  some  embarrass- 
ment to  the  larger  companies.” 

MINOR  USES  OF  SAND  AND  GRAVEL. 

There  are  many  additional  uses  of  these  materials, 
only  a few  of  which  are  herein  named.  Nearly  every 
farmer  uses  sand  in  sacks  or  boxes  for  weights  and 
also  supplies  the  poultry  yard  with  a load  or  two  a year. 
Sand  boxes  are  in  general  use  under  stoves  in  country  stores, 
depots,  and  public  places,  probably  on  account  of  sanitation  and 
partly  on  account  of  fire  protection.  The  use  of  refractory  sand 
in  furnaces  is  small  in  Nebraska,  but  it  has  much  importance  in 
most  of  the  central  and  eastern  states.  Sand  is  employed  very 
generally  in  wood  working  and  in  the  sand  blast,  but  not  to 
any  extent  in  our  state.  Its  use  for  the  purposes  of  water 
filtration  and  purification  are  wide  spread,  especially  in  large 
cities.  This  practice  is  not  yet  employed  in  Nebraska,  yet  the 


trSES  SANb  AND  gravel 


20l 


plan  was  once  under  consideration  at  Beatrice.  There  are 
many  places  in  the  state,  however,  where  certain  sandy  beds 
in  the  subsoil  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  drainage. 
At  such  places,  spouts  from  buildings  are  directed  to  the 
sand  with  the  result  that  subsurface  drainage  becomes  a factor 
in  sanitation. 

The  following  notes  from  Mr.  O.  J.  Fee,  Superintendent 
Grounds  and  Buildings,  University  of  Nebraska,  describe  the 
requisites  for  sand  and  gravel  used  in  sanding  wood  and 
walks. 

“Sanding  Wood, — In  house  building  on  the  Pacific  coast 
much  sand  is  used  for  exterior  finish,  for  stone  effect,  and 
to  produce  a surface  that  is  capable  of  resisting  the  sand  storm 
which  is  known  to  etch  even  the  glass  of  windows.  Sea  sand 
lends  itself  best  for  such  a finish.  The  kind  used  is  white, 
sharp,  and  even  grained.  It  penetrates  the  fresh  paint  giving 
a good  holding  surface,  and  the  sharp  angles  furnish  a myriad 
of  reflecting  surfaces.  The  color  effect  can  be  varied  by  using 
different  shades  of  paint. 

In  the  middle  states,  sand  used  for  exterior  finish  gathers 
so  much  dust  as  to  render  a rather  muddy  effect,  but  vandalism 
has  called  for  sanded  wood  in  public  buildings,  and  for  the 
protection  of  certain  parts  of  exteriors,  as  at  railroad  stations. 
For  this  last  named  purpose  local  gray  sands  are  usually  used 
instead  of  the  sea  sand,  saving  the  expense  of  transportation. 
For  interior  surfacing,  however,  it  is  still  preferable  to  pro- 
cure sea  sand  in  order  to  get  light  reflecting  walls.  In  apply- 
ing sand  to  the  surface,  it  is  thrown  on,  much  as  the  farmer 
sows  grain,  skill  being  required  to  give  an  even  coating.  The 
same  type  of  rough  finish  is  approximated  in  the  so-called  sand 
rolled  brick,  so  much  in  demand  in  the  eastern  states  at  the 
present  time.  Two  advantages  are  obtained  in  this  finish, 
protection  from  the  vandal’s  pencil  and  knife  and  a uniform 
shade  effect  to  the  building. 

Sanding  Walks. — This  is  done  to  insure  a good  foothold  on 
sli])pery  sidewalks  and  thorofares.  The  practice  is  very  gen- 
eral and  insures  the  safety  of  pedestrians  while  traversing  ice 
covered  wa^ks.  However,  the  amount  of  material  placed  on 
walks  near  buildings  should  be  reduced  to  the  minimum,  for 
the  liard  sand  grains  are  tracked  into  houses,  causing  abrasion 
of  the  finish  and  wood  of  floors.” 


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INDEX 


A 

AckruAvledgment,  15. 

Alluvium,  58, 

“ formation,  8(5. 

Analysis,  sand,  *112. 

“ glass,  194. 

Ande;  ite,  24. 

Arapahoe,  14(5. 

Arikaree,  4(5,  49. 

Artificial  stone,  161. 

‘‘  ‘‘  plants  outlined  1(54. 

Ashland,  14;>. 

Ashland  dredge,  99. 

Asphalt,  171. 

Atkinson,  142. 

Atwood,  S.  H,,  122. 

Auriferous  sand,  20. 

B 

Ballast,  85. 

Bank  sand  along  Platte,  115. 
Barbour,  Erwin  H.,  15,  18. 

Bard  well,  May,  15. 

Basalt,  24. 

Bates,  Ross,  15. 

Beatrice,  131,  145. 

Beaver  City,  14(5, 

Bedding  sand,  190. 

Beehe,  John  H.,  90. 

Benton  Formations,  4(5. 

Berks,  11(5. 

Big  Blue  District,  129. 

Bishop,  E.  C.,  83. 

Black  sands.  20. 

Bloomington,  140. 

Blue  Springs,  145. 

Bramm,  128. 

Brickton,  134,  145. 

Broken  Bow,  85. 

Brule,  4(5. 

C 

Calcite,  23. 

Cambridge,  14(5. 

Carboniferous  rocks,  40. 

Carlile,  46. 

Cedar  Bluffs,  115. 

Cedar  Creek,  144. 

Cedar  Crt-ek  production,  108. 

Cement  Block  machines,  164. 

Central  City,  91. 

Ceresjo,  117. 

Chadron  46,  141. 

Chathurn,  Professor  in  U.  N.  15. 
Chert,  46. 

Chicago,  St.  Paul  Minn.  R.  R 78. 
Clark,  D.  Y.,  91. 

Classification  of  sands,  19. 

Clay,  24,  78. 

Cobbles  and  bowlders.  5(5. 

Cody,  142. 


Columbus,  91,  143. 

Concrete,  148. 

‘‘  comparative  fitness,  166. 

culverts,  155. 

“ curing,  165. 

“ dams,  157. 

“ ditches,  158. 

“ facing,  165. 

“ houses,  160 

“ mixing,  153. 

“ other  uses,  167. 

“ piers,  157. 

sewers,  160. 
subways,  1(50. 

“ specifications,  168. 

“ tanks,  158. 

“ walls,  1(50. 

“ water  pipes.  158. 

Condra,  Mrs.  G.  E.,  15 

Coral  sand,  20. 

Cornell  Engraving  Co.,  15. 

Cretaceous,  46. 

Crete,  131.  145. 

Crum,  C.  W.,  84. 

Cullom,  117,  144. 

‘ ‘ Gravel  Pit.  127. 

Culverts,  concrete,  147,  155. 

D 

Dakota,  46.  57. 

Dakota  clay,  120. 

Dakota  Formation,  41,  79,  86,  117 
138. 

Dakota  Formation,  outcrop  of,  42. 

Darton,  15,  4(5. 

Dams,  concrete.  147,  157. 

Denton,  11(5. 

Do  Witt,  145. 

Dredging,  boat,  64. 

‘‘  clam,  ()5. 

Dundy  County  , 139. 

Dune  sands,  59,  82. 

E 

Elk  Creek,  89,  144. 

Elkhorn  District,  83. 

Endicott,  146. 

Engine  sand,  18(5. 

F 

Pairbury,  1.36,  145,  14(1. 

Falls  City,  145. 

Feldspar,  17,  22,  51. 

Field  study,  13. 

Fisher,  C.  A.,  15,  118. 

Flint,  46. 

Florence,  142 

Foss,  S.  R..  133. 

Franklin,  14(5.  , 

Franklin  County,  140. 

Fremont,  91,  !)2,  94,  143. 

Fremont  dredges,.  91. 


Index 


204 


Fnlk.  J.  R..  136. 

Furnas  Countv,  140. 

G 

Gerino-,  46.  49. 

Gibson.  142. 

Glacial  boulders.  79. 

Glacial  deposits,  52. 

Glacial  formation.  86. 

Glacial  sand  and  trravel.  83. 
Glacio-fluvial  sand  plain.  54. 
Glass,  analyses  of,  194. 

economic  aspects,  19c. 
factories.  198, 

“ industry,  192. 

Gneiss.  25. 

Gould.  ('.  N.,  118.  - 

Grand  Island,  91. 

Graneros,  46. 

Granite,  16,  24,  57. 

Grant,  City  Enfrineer,  Lincoln.  151. 
Gravel,  46.  48.  49.  51,  52.  53,  54,  55, 
56.  58.  60.  64,  74,  117,  118. 
Gravel  pit,  122, 

Heatrice.  131. 

'•  **  Bramm,  128. 

Rrickton,  134. 

••  “ Crete,  131. 

“ •*  r’ullom,  127. 

..  Fairbury.  1,36. 

**  •*  Hebron. -135. 

••  Milford.  132. 

“ Sutton,  132. 

‘‘  **  Turkey  Creek,  1.33. 

“ ‘‘  Flysses,  1.32. 

**  “ Wao-ner,  128. 

■'  'Wymore.  131. 

'■  ‘‘  York.  132. 

Gravel  and  Pebble  Rock.  44. 
Gravel  shipment.  126. 

Greg'ory,  G.  A..  132. 

Greenhorn,  46.  57. 

Greenstone,  57. 

H 

Haig’ler,  146. 

Halsey,  85,  142. 

Hartinj^ton,  84,  85. 

Hebron,  1.35,  145. 

Hoover,  N.  L.,  90. 

Hornblende,  23. 

Introduction,  13. 

Iron  oxides,  23. 

Irrig-ation  ditches,  147,  158. 

J 

Jensen,  J.  C..  140. 

K 

Kansan  Till,  54,  56? 

Kearney  Hydraulic  Stone  Co..  90. 
Kearney  and  vicinity,  89,  14,3. 


Kesterson.  146. 

L 

Laboratory  study  of  sand.  15. 
Lancaster.  116. 

Laramie,  46. 

Lexington,  143. 

Little  Blue  District.  134. 
Limestones,  57. 

Lincoln.  144. 

Logan  Valley,  84. 

Loess.  58. 

Long  Pine,  82. 

Loup  District.  85. 

Loup  Fork,  46. 

Louisville,  14.3,  144. 

Louisville  dredges,  105. 

Lyman  dredge,  94,  97. 

Lyman.  Mr..  99, 

M 

Madison.  84. 

Marsh,  F.  A.,  91. 

Martel,  116. 

Martinsburg.  78, 

Masonry  mortar,  153. 

Meadow,  143. 

Meadow  dredges,  99. 

Meadow  Grove.  84. 

Mercer,  A.  J.,  90. 

Merna.  142 
McCook.  146. 

Mica,  16,  22. 

Mica  and  hornblende  schists,  57. 
Middle  Creek,  117, 

Middle  Loup,  85. 

Milford.  117,  132,  145. 

Miocene,  43. 

Molding  sand,  190. 

Monolithic  walls  and  houses.  147, 
160. 

Montgomery,  F.  W.,  89. 

Morrison  Formation,  41. 

Morse  Bluff,  115. 

Morse.  Professor  in  U.  N.,  15. 
Mortar  sands,  140. 

“ mixing  of.  151. 

Murphv,  Hugh.  108. 

Nebraska  Citv,  142. 

Neligh,  84. 

Nemaha  District.  127. 

Niobrara.  46,  76. 

“ District,  82, 

Norfolk.  84. 

North  Platte.  86. 

Northwestern  R.  R..  82.  ^ 

0 

O’Connell.  James.  139. 

Ogalalla,  46.  49,  51. 

Oligocene,  46. 


205 


Index 


Omaha,  142. 

“ Gravel  Company,  122. 

Ord,  142. 

Ottawa  sand,  29. 

Oxford,  146. 

P 

Palmyra,  142. 

Parmalee,  A.  H.,  109. 

Pavements,  cement,  169. 

Pawnee  City,  144. 

Pawnee  County  production,  128. 

Peanut  rock,  46. 

Pennsylvanian  sand,  41. 

Peru,  142. 

Perrin,  Dale  C.,  15. 

Pierce,  46. 

Piers,  concrete,  147,  157. 

Plaster,  147,  152, 

Platte  River,  18. 

“ District,  86. 

Plattsmouth,  80. 

Platte  sand,  commercial  movement, 
113. 

R 

Railroad  ballast,  175. 

Railroads  and  markets,  113. 

Red  Cloud,  146. 

Red  Willow  County,  139. 

Republican  District,  138. 

Residual  gravel  and  sand,  88. 

Rhyolites,  24. 

Richards,  Professor  in  U.  N.,  15. 

Richardson  County,  production, 
128. 

Roofing  gravel,  172. 

S 

Salem,  145. 

Salt  Creek,  42. 

Salt  Creek  Valley,  116. 

Samples,  sand,  14. 

Sand,  13,  17,  46,  78,  79,  80,  89,  90, 

112. 

Sand,  Arikaree,  49. 

‘‘  as  moisture  pad,  168. 

“ chemical  analysis,  80. 

“ classification,  19. 

“ comparison,  58, 

‘‘  composition,  21,  24,  36. 

“ delivery,  75. 

“ deposits,  82,  84,86,  88. 

“ districts,  76. 

“ dredging,  64,  65. 

‘‘  dune  sand,  59. 

“ exposures,  76. 

“ field  study,  13. 

“ Gering,  49. 

“ glacial,  52. 

“ glacio-lluvial,  54,  55,  56. 

‘‘  grading,  30. 


“ in  Dakota  Formation,  42. 

“ laboratory  study,  15. 

“ loading  and  hauling,  61. 

“ markets,  113. 

“ mining,  60,  65. 

“ minor  uses.  200. 

“ Ogalalla,  49. 

“ origin,  16. 

physical  and  chemical  prop- 
erties, 25. 

“ Pliocene,  51. 

“ Platte,  113. 

‘‘  production  and  trade,  70, 

108,  115,  116. 
pumping,  64,  104. 

“ quality,  80. 

residual,  88. 

. “ samples,  14. 

“ shipment,  72,  106. 

sources,  60. 

“ specialized  trade,  69. 

“ specific  gravity,  33. 

*•  supply  and  demand,  72. 

“ Tertiary,  51. 

‘‘  testing,  26,  36. 

‘‘  till  plain,  52. 

“ total  value,  72. 

“ tunneling,  62. 

uses,  150,  173,  190. 

“ washing  and  screening,  74. 

“ weight,  33. 

Sand-bearing  formations,  38. 

“ “ “ outlined, 

40. 


Sand  dredge,  Ashland,  99. 

“ Fremont,  94. 

“ ‘‘  Louisville,  105. 

“ ‘‘  Lyman,  94,  97. 

‘‘  “ Meadow,  99. 

‘‘  “ Valley,  97. 

“ “ Woodworth,  97,  105. 

Sand-lime  bricks,  178. 

‘‘  “ ‘‘  manufacture,  180. 

“ “ nature  of,  182. 

“ “ “ constitution  of, 

182. 

Sand-lime  brick,  plants,  184,  186.. 

table  of  product- 
ions, 185. 

Sand  pit,  78,  80,  83,  84,  85,  86,  90, 
91,  92,  94. 

Sand  pits,  Berks,  116. 

“ “ Cedar  Bluffs,  115. 

“ “ Ceresco,  117. 

“ “ Cullom,  117. 

“ “ Davey,  117. 

“ “ Denton,  116. 

“ “ Lancaster,  116. 


Index 


“ Martel.  116. 

Middle  Creek.  117. 
" Morse  Bluff.  115. 

*•  Pleasant  Dale.  117. 
Sand  pits.  Prairie  Home.  117. 
*•  “ Wahoo,  115. 


Sandstone.  17.  25. 

Sand  supply.  Ansley.  86. 


.. 

Broken  Bow.  86. 

..  .i 

Calloway.  86. 

.. 

Bolumbus.  86. 

i i 

Fremont,  86. 

Gates  P.  O.,  86. 

Mason  City.  86. 

..  .i 

Oakdale.  86. 

Schist,  25. 

Sargent.  86, 

Schuvler.  91. 

Scotts  Bluff.  143. 

Screening’  and  washing,  74. 

Section  gravel  ptt.  127. 

Sewers,  concrete.  147,  160. 
Shipment,  sand.  74, 

Short.  Ed.  M.,  140. 

Sidewalks,  cement.  168. 

Sidney  and  Chappel.  88. 

Sioux  Quartzite.  57. 

South  Bend.  143. 

South  Platte,  89. 

Standard  sands,  29. 

State  Geol.  Survey.  13. 

Steam  shovel.  65. 

Stout,  Proffessor  in  U.  X..  15. 
Street  and  road  making,  Subways 
and  tunels.  147,  160. 

Sutton.  132.  145. 

Svenites,  24.  57. 

T 

Table  Rock,  144. 


Tanks,  concrete.  147,  158. 
Tecumseh.  128.  144. 

Tekamah,  78.  142. 

Tertiary.  46.  .51.  .58,  74.  76. 

formations,  83.  86, 
Thedford.  85. 

Thomas.  Dr.  A.  O..  90, 

Till  plain  sands,  .52 
Trap  Rock.  57. 

Trenton.  146. 

Triassic  and  Jurassic  rocks,  41. 
Tunneling  sand.  62. 

Turkev  Creek.  133. 

U 

Ulvsses.  132. 

V 

Valentine,  83.  142. 

Valley,  143. 

\ alley  Dredge.  97. 

Value  of  total  sand  production. 
Van  Court  gravel  pit  119. 
Voids,  34. 

Volcanic  ash,  20. 

W 

Wade,  Wm..  122. 

Wagner.  128. 
v^ahoo.  115.  144. 

Water  pipes,  concrete,  147.  158. 
White.  Samuel,  135. 

Whitmore.  Hon.  C.  W..  97. 
Wilber.  145. 

Wisner,  84. 

Woodlake.  142. 

Woods.  W.  W.  15. 

Woodworth  dredge.  97.  105. 

••  gravel  pit.  120. 
Wvmore.  131,  145. 

Y 

York,  132.  145. 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  STATE  GEOLOGIST 


VOLUME  3 

PART  2 

THE  SKULL  OF  MOROPUS 


BY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR 


Scientific  Contribution 
Geological  fund  of  Hon.  Chas.  H.  Morrill 


LINCOLN,  NEB. 

WOODRUFF-COLLINS  PTG.  CO. 
1908 


IId^ARY 
OF  THE 

UNlVERSiTY  OF  ILLlNOiS 


THE  SKULL  OF  MOROPUS. 


During  the  summer  of  1905  the  Morrill  Geological  Expedition 
of  the  University  of  Nebraska  had  the  good  fortune  to  discover 
early  in  July  the  skull  of  Moropus.  Associated  with  it  were  mian- 
dible,  atlas  and  other  cervicals,  and  various  skeletal  parts. 

Around  it^  within  the  radius  of  a few  feet,  enough  material  was 
found  for  a complete  restoration. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  give  a brief  preliminary  ac- 
count of  Moropus,  more  particularly  of  the  above  mentioned 
skull,  which  is  the  only  one  known  in  any  collection  at  the  present 
time. 

Though  this  paper  was  written  in  the  fall  of  1905,  for  the  sake 
of  greater  accuracy  it  was  withheld  from  publication,  awaiting 
the  preparation  of  the  material  secured. 

However  it  must  be  presented  in  its  original  form,  or  not  at  all, 
for  the  labor  incident  to  building  and  moving  into  new  quarters 
precludes  the  possibility  of  making  additions  and  corrections. 

There  is  so  much  of  scientific  importance  attached  to  the  skeletal 
parts  and  the  skull  of  Moropus,  as  the  writer  believes,  that  accurate 
figures  on  a large  scale,  though  not  accompanied  by  descriptions 
will  nevertheless  be  of  interest  to  naturalists. 

The  skull  herein  figured  was  found  near  the  surface  in  the  quarry 
on  University  hill.  There  are  two  Miocene  hills  facing  the  Nio- 
brara on  the  ranch  of  Mr.  James  Cook,  at  Agate,  Nebraska,  one  of 
which  has  been  designated  Carnegie  hill,  because  of  the  extensive 
bone  quarry  opened  there  by  Carnegie  Museum,  the  other 
University  hill  because  of  a similar  bone  quarry  opened  there 
by  the  University  of  Nebraska. 

The  two  hills  are  about  two  hundred  yards  apart,  and  are  separ- 
ated by  a slight  notch  at  the  top.  They  may  be  viewed  as  one 
hill,  with  a continuous  bone  layer  across  their  summits. 

This  bone  bed  is  a singularly  productive  one,  for  jaws,  skulls, 
vertebrae,  limb  bones,  and  ribs  oc(uir  in  heaps. 

The  bones  of  commonest  occurrence  are  those  of  the  Rhinoceros 
(Diceratherium)  and  of  iUoropus. 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Of  Moropus,  vertebrae,  ribs,  limb  bones,  foot  bones,  and  the 
interesting  cleft  terminal  toe  bones,  mandibles,  and  teeth  are 
common,  but  skulls  are  very  rare. 

The  Morrill  Geological  Collection  has  but  two  skulls,  one  nearly 
complete,  the  other  fragmentary,  but  to  a certain  extent  supple- 
menting the  first.  The  palatine  view  of  the  better  of  the  two 
shows  a skull  perfect  save  for  the  premaxillaries,  which  are 
missing. 

Unfortunately  the  top  of  this  skull  has  been  badly  weathered,  and 
part  of  the  top  of  the  brain  box  is  missing,  however  its  form  is 
known  from  the  second  skull.  The  brain  cavity  is  now  worked 
out  to  the  last  detail,  and  a gelatine  mould  will  show  the  lobes 
and  convolutions  perfectly.  The  very  top  of  the  cerebrum  and 
cerebellum  will  be  wanting  in  the  cast  but  the  correct  form  of  the 
missing  parts  can  be  accurately  supplied,  from  the  second  skull. 

The  nasals  and  frontals  are  unknown  as  yet. 

The  skull  of  Moropus  bears  a close  resemblance  to  that  of  the 
horse  in  size  and  shape,  and  thinness  of  skull  wall.  It  is  much 
more  trim  and  delicate  than  the  robust  bones  of  the  frame  would 
indicate.  In  point  of  size  Moropus  bones  rival  those  of  the  Titan- 
otheres.  There  is  no  sagittal  crest  as  in  the  European  form. 

The  occipital  condyles  are  proportionally  large,  wide,  and  separ- 
ated by  a deep  notch.  The  basioccipital  is  in  a plane  with  the 
palatine  but  the  basisphenoid  makes  an  angle  to  it. 

The  tympanic  bone  is  strongly  inflated  into  an  ovoid  bulla 
whose  axis  is  parallel  to  the  median  line  of  the  skull.  The  external 
auditory  meatus  is  small  and  situated  midway  between  the  post 
glenoid  process  and  the  occipital  process.  The  auditory  tube  is 
about  at  right  angles  to  the  bulla.  It  is  a bony  sheath  supported 
by  alae  adherent  to  the  post-glenoid  process.  The  accompany- 
ing plate  of  the  skull  of  Moropus  is  on  such  a large  scale,  and  the 
cranial  parts  so  distinct  that  further  descriptions  are  unnecessary, 
and  space  need  not  be  occupied  by  measurements.  The  size  of 
the  skull  seems  to  be  out  of  proportion  to  the  cervical  vertebrae, 
which  seem  to  be  quite  as  large  as  those  of  Titanotherium.  These 
are  vertebrae  of  interesting  form,  the  centra  being  greatly  flattened, 
the  cup  being  inclined  obliquely  upward,  and  the  ball  obliquely 
downward,  the  zygapophyses  being  uncommonly  broad.  Such 


THE  SKULL  OF  MOROPUS 


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tnat  snown  m fig.  2.  in  the  mandible,  specimen  No.  20-7-06,  the  angle  is  restored  from  the 
right  side.  Photographed  from  specimens  in  the  collections  of  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill  The 
University  Museum.  ’ 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fig.  2. — Top  view  of  a fragmentary  cranium  of  Moropus,  § natural  size. 
Young,  and  probably  a distinct  species. 


B 


Fig.  3. — Side  view  of  the  mandible  of  ^loropus. 


THE  SKULL  OF  MOROPUS 


an  arrangement  doubtless  made  it  possible  to  carry  its  head  high. 
One  is  impressed  by  the  number  of  oblique  facets  in  the  bones  of 
Moropus. 

AFFINITIES  OF  MOROPUS. 

The  Chalicotheres  were  widely  distributed,  their  remains  having 
been  found  in  Europe,  India,  Asia  and  North  America. 

Their  geologic  range  is  from  the  Oligocene  to  the  Pliocene. 

The  specimen  herein  described  was  found  associated  with  Dai- 
monelix  in  the  lower  Miocene,  or  the  Harrison  beds,  Sioux  County. 
As  to  affinities  there  has  been  long  and  interesting  speculation. 

, The  large  cleft  terminal  phalanges,  which  are  so  characteristic, 
were  pro bablyA  retractile  as  in  the  Cats  and  would  incline  one  to 
classif)^  Moropus  with  the  Unguiculates,  but  other  characters  point 
with  greater  certaint}^  to  the  fact  that  it  was  an  Ungulate.  It 
seems  to  have  occupied  a position  intermediate  between  the  two 
great  groups.  Cope,  relating  it  to  the  Unguiculates,  established 
a special  order  for  it,  the  Ancylopoda. 

The  relation  of  Moropus  to  the  Edentates  has  had  serious  con- 
sideration, and  also  the  possibility  that  it  might  occupy  a position 
intermediate  between  the  Edentates  and  the  Ungulates. 

That  it  is  an  Ungulate  and  not  an  Unguiculate  is  generally  ac- 
cepted, and  that  it  is  a Perisodactjde  ungulate  as  Osborne  first 
suggested,  is  evidenced  by  teeth,  astragalus,  carpus,  and  tarsus. 
The  term  Unguiculate-perisodactyle  would  be  fairly  expressive 
of  the  facts. 

Though  apparently  a most  aberrant  Perisodactyle  its  remark- 
able claw  may  in  fact  be  a superficial  adaptive  modification  rather 
than  a fundamental  morphological  difference.  Moropus  was 
apparentl}^  an  ally  of  Titanotherium,  Osborne  has  said  that  ‘The 
group  to  which  Chalicotherium  belongs  was  derived  from  the  Con- 
dylarthra  of  the  lowest  Eocene  with  affinities  to  the  Meniscother- 
idae  and  primitive  Perisodactyle. 

It  represents  a distinct  order,  the  Ancylopoda  (Cope). 

The  likeness  to  the  Unguiculates  and  especially  to  the  Edentata 
is  due  to  secondary  adaptations  and  contains  no  proof  of  affinity.’^ 
That  there  are  several  species  of  Moropus  seems  certain  to  those 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Fig. '4. — Mandible  of  Moropus  viewed  from  above,  J natural  size. 


THE  SKULL  OF  MOROPUS 


who  have  studied  their  remains  in  the  quarries.  However,  no 
attempt  will  be  made  at  this  writing  to  recognize  more  than  the 
one  form.  Marsh’s  Moropus  elatus  was  found  at  Fort  Niobrara 
Nebraska,  hence  in  supposed  upper  Miocene,  while  the  one  pre- 
sented here  was  found  at  Agate,  Nebraska,  in  supposed  lower 
Miocene.  The  difference  in  geologic  horizon  seems  sufficient  to 
warrant  belief  in  difference  of  species.  It  seems  fitting  to  name 
the  specimen  herein  illustrated  Moropus  cooki  in  honor  of  Mr. 
James  H.  Cook  who  discovered  and  made  known  the  bone  beds 
at  Agate,  Nebraska,  and  who,  assisted  by  his  son  Harold  J.  Cook, 
has  done  so  much  subsequently  to  encourage  paleontological 
investigation  in  that  region. 

The  above  skull  of  Moropus  was  secured  for  the  Morrill  Geo- 
logical Expedition  of  1905,  by  Mr.  John  H.  Miller,  of  the  class  of 
1906. 

When  time  permits  this  brief  paper  will  be  followed  by  a lengthier 
report  on  the  skull,  brain,  skeletal  parts  and  restoration  of  Moropus. 

The  University  of  Nebraska, 

September  10,  1907. 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


PRKMOLAK  1 MOI-AK  I 
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; \ 

PRKMOLAK  2 
PRKMOLAK  ;< 


KOKAMKN  ROTU.vm'M 
POSTKRIOR  \ARKSj 


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FORAMEN  OVALE  I CONDYLAR 
♦ FORAMEN 


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PAL.^IN'E  PTERYGOID 


BASISPHENOID 


Fig,  5, — Key  to  Plate  I,  diawn  from  specimen  No.  27-7-05;  the  col- 
lections of  Hon.  Charles  H.  ^lorrill,  the  University  Museum.  The  skull 
and  teeth  are  deeply  etched  by  Daimonelix  ‘^fibers”. 


SIONmi  JO  AUSM3A1N1I 
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I 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Moropi 


Plate  1 


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i 


SlONmi  JO  AilS83WNn 
3H1  JO 
A8V8an 


Plate 


The  Molar-premolar  series  of  Moropus  cooki,  natural  size.  A.  Top  view.  B.  Side  view.  All  parts  distinctly 

etched  by  Daimonelix  ‘ 'fibers. 


Vo?AnY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


12 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  STATE  GEOLOGIST 

VOLUME  3 

PART  3 

SKELETAL  PARTS  OF  MOROPUS 


BY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR 


Scientific  Contribution 
Geological  fund  of  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill 


LINCOLN,  NEB. 

WOODRUFF-COLLINS  PTG.  CO, 
1908 


SKELETAL  PARTS  OF  MOROPUS 

BY  ERWIN  H.  BARBOUR 

In  the  foregoing  number,  it  was  announced  that  the 
skull  of  Moropus  had  been  discovered.  Heretofore  the  genus  had 
been  known  chiefly  by  scattered  teeth  and  fragments,  mostly  toe 
bones,  but  now  that  the  collections  of  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill, 
Nebraska  State  Museum,  have  the  skeletal  parts  necessary  for 
the  restoration  of  this  remarkable  animal,  it  seems  advisable  to 
supplement  the  brief  illustrated  report  concerning  the  skull  of 
Moropus  with  a similar  paper  concerning  its  skeletal  parts. 

In  brief,  the  main  skeletal  features  of  this  unique  and  anomal- 
ous clawed-herbivore  are,  its  small  trim  horse-like  head;  erect 
horse-like  neck;  prominent  fore  quarters,  and  retreating  hind 
quarters;  and,  foremost  of  all,  its  fingers  armed  with  great  claw- 
like hoofs  curving  inward,  suggesting  that  the  animal  may  have 
been  somewhat  “pigeon  toed.”  The  skull  and  cervical  vertebrae 
of  Moropus  are  strikingly  like  those  of  the  domestic  horse.  In 
general  appearance  and  point  of  size  the  skulls  are  identical,  while 
the  cervical  vertebrae,  though  so  similar  in  form,  are  about  one- 
third  larger  in  the  case  of  Moropus.  The  above  comparison  has 
reference  to  Moropus  cooki,  or  the  great  Moropus;  the  least,  and 
the  intermediate  forms  being  left  out  of  the  present  reckoning. 

As  a mental  picture,  perhaps  this  creature  had  a body  like  a 
tapir,  with  high  shoulders,  a neck  and  head  resembling  the  horse, 
and  tridactyle  hands  and  feet  set  with  hoofs  so  compressed  and 
modified  as  to  resemble  claws,  and  possibly  used  as  such  in  gather- 
ing together  boughs  and  tall  grass,  or  in  tearing  roots  from  the 
ground. 

In  life  Moropus  ])robably  carried  its  head  high,  and  its  neck 
was  flexible  and  arched  like  that  of  a spirited  horse,  though  its 
head  could  plainly  reach  the  ground. 

Of  the  cervical  seiles,  the  zyga])ophyses  are  uncommonly  large, 
and  the  spinous  processes  larger  and  higher,  the  keels  more  pro- 
nounced, and  the  several  centra  jiroduced  jiosteriorly  much  be- 
yond those  in  the  horse. 


220 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


The  axis  shows  an  interesting  persistence  of  a primitive  char- 
acter in  its  peg-shaped  odontoid  process,  which  seems  to  be  re- 
tained as  a vestigial  part,  surrounded  by  the  trough-shaped  type 
of  odontoid  common  to  the  Ungulates. 

The  thoracic  vertebrae  are  more  robust  than  those  of  the 
horse,  the  spinous  processes  are  higher  and  stouter,  and  the  neural 
spines  suffer  little  reduction  in  the  lumbar  region.  Possibly  the 
number  of  lumbar  vertebrae  was  five,  as  indicated  by  a patholog- 
ical set,  which  was  grown  together,  (an  extreme  case  of  senile 
exostosis).  These  were  the  posterior  lumbars,  and  in  front,  and 
in  line  with  them  in  the  quarry  occurred  posterior  thoracic  vertebrae 
presumably  in  position.  Of  the  sacrals  there  are  four.  The  caucl- 
als  were  long  and  proportionally  slim,  indicating  a long  tail. 

Of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  fore  limbs,  the  scapula  is  best  de- 
scribed by  the  accompanying  figures,  likewise  the  humerus  and 
the  co-ossified  radius  and  ulna,  of  which  several  views  are  shown. 
The  strikingly  interesting  part  is  the  hand,  which  had  three  func- 
tional digits,  each  armed  with  powerful  claws  set  like  grappling 
hooks.  The  thumb  is  wanting,  the  little  finger  reduced  and  func- 
tionless, the  middle  finger  long,  and  the  second  digit  exceptionally 
strong.  The  co-ossified  first  and  second  phalanges,  and  the  cleft 
ungual  phalanx  are  best  described  by  the  figures. 

The  pelvic  girdle  and  hind  limbs  are  shown  in  the  illustrations. 
The  femur  of  the  European  type  lacks  the  third  trochanter,  which 
in  the  American  form  is  strongly  developed.  The  tibia  is  short  and 
heavy,  its  trihedral  form  being  somewhat  obscured  by  the  broad 
rounded  crest. 

In  the  quarries  at  Agate,  Sioux  County,  Nebraska,  the  preser- 
vation of  all  bones  is  nearly  or  quite  faultless,  and  the  number  of 
Moropus  bones  met  with  is  surprisingly  large.  As  an  example  in 
the  northern  portion  of  the  Morrill  Quarry,  on  University  Hill, 
the  bone  layer  consists  exclusively  of  Moropus. 

The  number  of  young  individuals  comes  as  a surprise  to  every 
collector.  Many  epiphyses  are  off,  and  many  sutures  open  even 
in  well  advanced  adults.  In  old  skulls  the  sutures  seem  to  persist. 

Perhaps  Moropus  was  a long  lived  creature,  and  consequently 
slow  in  maturing.  Collectors  are  impressed  with  the  fact  that 
several  legitimate  species  must  be  established  on  the  bones  re- 
vealed in  this  quarry,  and  yet  fear  of  multiplying  species  restrains 


SKELETAL  PARTS  OF  MOROPUS 


221 


mention  of  possible  intermediate  forms.  One,  however,  is  so  per- 
sistently small,  and  its  occurrence  so  frequent  that  its  size  may  be 
counted  a constant  character,  and  for  convenience  it  may  be  called 
the  small  Moropus,  Moropus  parvus.  Judging  by  limb  bones,  and 
toebones  it  is  about  one-third  to  one-half  smaller  than  Moropus 
cooki. 


1 2 


5 


BONES  OF  MOROPUS  PARVUS 

Fig.  1 — Atlas,  top  view,  one-third  natural  size,  partly  restored.  Fig.  2 — 
Same  from  below.  Fig.  li — Patella,  one-third  natural  size  Fig.  4 — Ulna,  one- 
third_natural  size.  Fig.  5 — Part  of  the  molar-premolar  series,  natural  size. 


Uhotograi)hed  from  s})ecimens  in  the  collections  of  Hon. 
Charles  H.  Morrill,  The  Nebraska  State  Museum,  The  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska. 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


999 


MOROPUS  PARVUS  SP.  NOV. 

Atlas  vertebra  essentially  unlike  Moropus  cooki;  length  115 
mm  (4i  in.),  width  150  mm  (6  in.),  as  compared  with  M.  cooki, 
which  is  150  mm  (6  in.)  long,  180  mm  (7  in.)  wide.  Note  short 
thin  neural  arch  with  anterior  notch  about  twice  as  large  as  that 
in  M.  cooki.  Transverse  process  not  produced  anteriorly  to  over- 
hang the  spinal  nerve,  as  in  M.  cooki,  and  the  posterior  elongation 
not  confluent  with  the  postzygapophysis,  but  separated  b}’  a 
pronounced  notch  at  the  vertebrarterial  foramen. 

The  atlas  is  chosen  as  the  base  of  the  species,  and  the  other 
bones  may  belong  to  it  or  to  some  other  closely  related  species. 

Postzygapophyses  convex  and  not  produced  dorsally  into 
acute  edges,  as  in  M.  cooki  shown  in  plate  I,  figure  A. 

There  are  at  hand  molar-premolar  teeth  of  three  individuals, 
one  young,  one  adult,  one  old,  the  last  named  being  shown  in  figure 
5,  natural  size,  for  direct  comparison  with  M.  cooki,  plate  2 of 
preceding  part. 

The  cervical  vertebrae  are  proportionally  longer  and  slimmer, 
and  with  keel  even  more  pronounced  than  in  M.  cooki. 

The  above  differences  do  not  seem  to  be  incident  to  variations 
of  age  and  sex,  and  will  be  considered  specific. 

The  University  of  Nebraska 

June  26,  1908. 

(Printed  and  distributed,  March,  1909.) 


PLATE  I 

A.  Atlas  vertebra  of  Moropus  cooki  from  above,  nerve  foramen 
and  notch,  anterior;  tips  of  the  transverse  processes  per- 
forated by  the  vertebrarterial  canal.  Specimen  No.  98- 
20-7-06,  h natural  size.  Length  153  mm  (6  in),  width  175 
mm  (7  in). 

B.  Same  from  below. 


Photographed  from  specimen  in  the. collections  of  Hon.  Charles 
H.  Morrill,  The  Nebraska  State  Museum,  The  University 
of  Nebraska. 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey. 


Vol.  3,  Part  3.  PLATE  I 


B 


PLATE  II 


A.  Axis  of  Moropus  cooki,  side  view,  showing  great  spine, 
expanded  postzygapophyses,  combined  peg  and  trough- 
shaped odontoid  process.  Specimen  No.  20-20-7-05,  ^ 
natural  size.  Extreme  height  172  mm  (6f  inches),  extreme 
length,  210  mm  (8i  inches). 

B.  Same  from  above. 


Photographed  from  specimen  in  the  collections  of  Hon.  Charles 
H.  Morrill,  The  Nebraska  State  Museum,  The  University  of 
Nebraska. 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey. 


PLATE  II 


A 


Vol.  3,  Part  3. 


PLATE  III 


A.  Fourth  cervical  vertebra  of  Moropus  from  above,  showing'; 
broadly  expanded  zygapophyses,  low  spine,  and  obliques 
cup. 

B.  Same  from  below,  showing  ball  and  pronounced  keel. 
Length  195  mm  (7f  inches);  width  167  mm  (6|  inches). 
Specimen  No.  97-20-7-06,  h natural  size. 


Photographed  from  specimens  in  the  collections  of  Hon.  Charles 
H.  Morrill,  The  Nebraska  State  Museum,  The  University  of 
Nebraska. 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey. 


Vol.  3,  Part  3.  PLATE  III 


PLATE  IV 

A.  Front,  B.  side,  C.  back  view  of  the  second  thoracic* 
vertebra,  I natural  size.  Specimen  Xo.  42-20-7-08,  exact 
height  315  mm  (124  inches). 

D.  Oblique,  E.  back  view  of  the  last  lumbar  vertebra. 
Specimen  X'o.  10-20-7-05.  Width  across  transverse  proces- 
ses 246  mm  (9|  inches).  Height  245  mm  (9|  inches) 
vertical  diameter  of  centrum  68  mm  (2f  inches),  trans- 
verse diameter  120  mm  (4|  inches). 


Photographed  from  specimens  in  the  collections  of  Hon.  Charles 
H.  Morrill,  The  X'ebraska  State  Museum,  The  University  of 
Nebraska. 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey.  Vol.  3,  Part  3.  PLATE  TV 


PLATE  V 

Right  Scapula  of  Moropus  cooki,  ^ natural  size. 

A.  Outer  surface,  B.  inner  surface.  Specimen  No.  65-20-7- 
06.  Resembles  scapula  of  Diceratherium  and  Sus.  Height 
502  mm  (19|  inches).  Width  330  mm  (13  inches). 
Height  of  mesoscapula  90  mm  (3^  inches).  Spine 
over-hangs  the  postscapula.  Glenoid,  coracoid,  and  supra- 
scapular borders  thin.  Acromion  and  coracoid  practically 
obliterated. 

C.  Left  humerus,  anterior  surface  showing  deltoid  ridge  and 
trochlea,  about  J natural  size. 

D.  Same,  posterior  view  showing  deep  olecranon  fossa.  Length  * 
of  fragment,  551  mm  (21|  inches). 

Diameter  of  shaft,  middle,  75  mm  (3  inches),  width  of 
distal  end,  205  mm  (8|  inches).  Specimen  99-20-7-06. 


Photographed  from  specimens  in  the  collections  of  Hon.  Charles 
H.  Morrill,  Nebraska  State  Museum,  The  University  of 
Nebraska. 


Vol.  3,  Part  3.  PLATE  V. 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey. 


PLATE  VI 


Co-ossified  left  radius  and  ulna.  A.  Side,  B.  front,  C. 
back,  ^natural  size.  Specimen  No.  36-20-7-06. 

D.  A younger  individual,  specimen  No.  20-7-08.  Extreme 
length  of  co-ossified  radius  and  ulna  735  mm  (29  inches), 
length  of  radius  596  mm  (23|  inches),  width  of  distal 
end  150  mm  (5|  inches),  width  of  proximal  end  of 
radius  134  mm  (5|  inches). 


Photographed  from  specimens  in  the  collections  of  Hon.  Charles 
H.  Morrill,  The  Nebraska  State  Museum,  The  University 
of  Nebraska. 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey.  Vol.  3,  Part  3.  PL.\TE  VI 


PLATE  VII 


Co-ossified  phalanges  1 and  2 of  digit  II,  A.  top,  B.  side, 
C.  bottom.  Length  126  mm  (4|  inches).  Specimen 
No.  21-20-7-05.  i natural  size. 

D.  Top,  E.  side,  F.  bottom  view  of  the  cleft  ungual 
phalanx,  right,  II,  specimen  No.  22-20-7-05.  Length 
about  155  mm  (6  inches).  | natural  size. 


Photographed  from  specimens  in  the  collections  of  Hon.  Charles 
H.  Morrill,  The  Nebraska  State  Museum,  The  University  of 
Nebraska. 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey. 


Vol.  3,  Part  3.  PLATE  VII 


PLATE  Yin 

A.  Right  metacarpal  No.  II,  front  view,  ^ natural  size.  Speci- 
men No.  105-20-7-06.  Length  210  mm  (8^  inches). 

B.  Patella,  side  view;  C.  front;  h natural  size.  Specimen 
No.  23-20-7-05.  Vertical  diameter  107  mm. 

D.  Left  calcaneum,  specimen  No.  79-20-7-06.  h natural 
size. 

E.  Occiput  of  Moropus,  height  120  mm,  \ natural  size. 
Specimen  No.  110-20-7-08. 

F.  Hand  with  claw-like  hoofs  outlined,  digits  turned  somewhat 
inward. 

G.  Foot  with  part  of  tibia  and  fibula  cut  away  to  show 
calcaneum. 


Photographed  from  specimens  in  the  collections  of  Hon.  Charles 

H.  Morrill,  The  Nebraska  State  Museum,  The  Universit}^  of 
Nebraska. 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey. 


Vol.  3,  Part  3.  PLATE  VIII 


PLATE  IX 


A.  Os  inominatum  of  Moropus,  side  view,  gluteal  surface,  B. 
reverse  view,  sacral  surface,  natural  size.  Length  640 
mm  (25  inches);  width  of  ilium  290  mm  (114 
inches).  Specimen  Xo.  18-20-7-08.  C.  Right  femur 
of  Moropus,  back  view.  D.  Same,  front  view,  showing  a 
strong  third  trochanter  in  the  American  form  of  Moropus. 
Length  655  mm  (25  | inches).  Mddth  across  proximal 
end  230  mm  (9  inches),  width  of  distal  end  150  mm  (6  inches), 
diameter  of  shaft  just  below  the  third  trocahnter  100  mm 
(4  inches).  Intercondylar  notch  deep  and  angular.  Speci- 
men Xo.  44-20-7-08.  §-  natural  size. 

E.  Right  tibia,  length  470  mm  (184  inches).  IVidth 
of  proximal  end  134  mm  (5j  inches).  4 natural  size. 
Specimen  Xo.  20-7-05. 


Photographed  from  specimens  in  the  collections  of  Hon.  Charles 
H.  Morrill,  The  Xebraska  State  Museum,  The  University 
of  Xebraska. 


■\ 


> 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey.  Yol  3 3 PL\TE  IX 


% 


/ 


MOIIOPUS  COOKI. 
(One  twenty- firstJjN atiirarSize) 


Nebraoka  Geological  Survey.  Vol.  3,  Part  3.  PLATE  X, 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

«»NIVERSITY  OF  ILUNOIS 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey.  Vol.  3,  Part  3.  PLATE  XI 


CONJECTURAL  RESTORATION  OF  MOROPUS  COOKI,  BARBOUR 


OF  THE 

‘’DIVERSITY  Of  ILUNOIS 


13 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  State  Geologist 
VOLUME  3 

PART  4 

y 

TESTS  OF  THE  STRENGTH  OF 
CONCRETE 


BY 

GEORGE  R.  CHATBURN 


TESTS  OF  THE  STRENGTH  OF  CONCRETE. 


By  Georg-e  R.  Cliatburn. 

Since  the  use  of  concrete  is  becoming  so  general  it 
seems  quite  appropriate  that  the  tests  of  concrete  in  whicli 
any  Nebraska  material  forms  a constitnent  part  should  be 
recorded  where  they  may  be  obtained  by  those  interested. 
Th^  following  tests  were  made  in  the  I'esting  Laboratory  of 
the  University  of  Nebraska,  and  thongh  very  limited  in 
number  may  be  expressive  of  the  qualities  of  concrete 
mixed  from  these  materials. 

The  tension  tests  are  somewhat  novel  in  that  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  make  all  tests  of  concrete  either  in  compression 
or  by  cross-breaking.  But  as  the  stresses  in  direct  tension, 
or  as  nearly  direct  tension  as  it  is  practical  to  make  such 
tests,  are  comparatively  simple  stresses  it  was  thought  the 
results  might  be  a better  measure  of  the  true  qualities  of  the 
concretes  than  the  ordinary  crushing  of  cubes.  It  may  be 
doubtful  wliether  these  ideas  were  upheld  by  the  actual 
tests. 

The  tension-test  s])ecimens  were  about  the  shape  of  the 
standard  cement  briquettes  but  of  a size  which  gave  a three 
inch  scpiare,  that  is  nine  square  inches,  for  the  minimum 
cross  section.  See  figures  1 and  2. 

The  compression  tests  were  made  by  using  the  ends  of 
the  tension-test  pieces.  Tlie  bearing  area  was  21.6  square 
indies  and  the  height  6 indies.  These  wmre  placed  between 
steel  bearing  ])lates  and  the  loads  ap])lied  without  embed- 
ding or  (mshioning. 

The  cross-breaking  tests  were  made  on  beams  4x6x22 
inches  siqiiiorted  on  rounded  steel  bearings  20  inches  apart 
and  loaded  in  the  middle  till  broken,  the  age  of  these  beams 
being  but  one  week.  The  breaking  strength  ])er  square  inch 
is  calculated  by  the  well  known  formula  for  the  modulus  of 
rupture, 

8 PI 

S== 


2 b(P 


226 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

The  proportions  are  given  as  cement:  sand:  gravel  or 
broken  stone,  that  is  a proportion  of  1:  2:  4 means  a 
mixture  made  np  of  one  part  cement,  two  parts  sand,  and 
four  parts  gravel  oi\broken  stone. 


SHACKLE  AND  BRIQUETTE. 

Pig.  1. — Front  view  of  shackle  and  cement  briquette  ready 
for  testing, 


Fig.  2. — Same,  side  view. 


TEST  OF  CONCRETE 


TENSION  TESTS  OF  CONCRETE 


Materials 

No 

Proportions 

Applied  loads  in  lbs. 

Av.  stren'th  ner  sq.in. 

1 wk. 

1 mo. 

2 mos. 

1 wk. 

1 mo. 

2 mos. 

fWahoo  Gravel, 

1 

1 

2 : 4 

1000 

1650 

1 Western 

2 

“ 

850 

1903 

102 

198 

States 

Portland 

3 

1 

3 : 5 

790 

1610 

1 Cement 
1 

4 

990 

1230 

99 

157 

1 

1 

5 

1 

3 : 6 

730 

1540 

1 

6 

825 

1270 

86 

156 

Weeping  Water 

7 

1 

: 2 : 4 

1450 

1320 

Limestone, 

8 

1820 

1480 

182 

155 

Western 

J 

! wStates 

9 

1 

: 3 : 5 

1110 

1340 

1 

[ Portland 

10 

2000 

2170 

172 

195 

Cement 

11 

1 

: 3 : 0 

1450 

1730 

“ * 

12 

• ‘ 

1050 

1500 

139 

180 

fWahoo  Gravel, 

13 

1 

: 2 : 4 

700 

1050 

750 

i Red  Wing 

14 

i i 

925 

1300 

770 

90 

131 

84 

! Portland 

! Cement 

15 

1 

: 3 : 5 

610 

800 

950 

1 ‘i 

1 

16 

585 

10)0 

650 

6() 

100 

89 

i 

17 

1 

: 3 : 0 

440 

900 

6()0 

i 

18 

570 

750 

625 

56 

92 

71 

j Weeping  Water 

19 

1 

: 2 : 4 

1050 

1850 

2200 

1 Limestone, 

20 

fa  i 

1520 

1850 

2000 

143 

20(, 

233 

1 Red  Wing 

1 

! Portland 

21 

1 

: 3 : 5 

1100 

1250 

1 Cement  • 

22 

1025 

2000 

950 

118 

222 

122 

1 

1 

23 

1 

: 3 : 6 

745 

1500 

1030 

1 

24 

( i 

850 

1450 

950 

89 

164 

110 

228 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


COMPRESSION  TESTS  OF  CONCRETE 


Material 

No 

Proportions 

Applied  loads  in 
Pounds 

Aver’ge  strength 
lbs.  per  sq.  in. 

Age 

f Wahoo  Gravel, 

1 

1:2:4 

50540 

1 mo. 

1 Western 
States 

2 

03000 

2700 

1 Portland 

3 

1:3:  5 

55100 

t Cement 

4 

48750 

2400 

1 Weeping  W^ater 

5 

1:2:4 

71000 

( i 

Limestone, 

(i 

70500 

3270 

. i 

< Western 
States 

7 

1:3:  5 

02550 

i ( 

Cement 

8 

105500 

3900 

CROSS  BREAKING  TESTS  OF  CONCRETE 


Material 

No 

Proportions 

Applied  loads 

in  lbs. 

Age. 

Remarks 

Actual 

Per  sq. 
inch 

Avr’ge 

f Wahoo  Gravel, 

1 

1:2:4 

850 

177 

Iweek 

Tested  edg’se 

1 Western  States 

2 

i i 

780 

162 

170 

■{  Cement 

1 

3 

1:3:0 

100 

07 

‘ ‘ flatwise 

4 

• ‘ 

190 

79 

70 

i i 

a . ( 

f Weeping  Water 

5 

1:2:4 

710 

118 

i i 

“ edg’se 

Limestone, 

0 

‘ ‘ 

1250 

200 

204 

i i 

^ Western  States 

1 Cement 

7 

1:3:0 

400 

125 

. ( 

‘ ‘ flatwise 

1 

8 

i 

415 

130 

128 

4 i 

TESTS  OF  CONCRETE 


229 


The  above  tests  indicate  that  concrete  made  from 
Weeping  Water  limestone  is  stronger  in  tension,  in  com- 
pression, and  in  cross-breaking  than  that  from  Wahoo 
gravel. 

It  is  but  fair  to  say  that  the  gi*avel  used  was  not  very 
clean.  Had  it  been  washed,  possible  better  results  might 
have  been  obtained:  but  whetlier  the  increased  strength 

due  to  washing  would  pay  for  the  added  expense  is  a 
question  yet  to  be  determined. 

The  University  of  Nebraska, 

Feb.  1908. 


(Crinted  and  Distributed  February,  lOOU) 


14 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  State  Geologist 

VOLUME  3 

PART  5 


THE  FLINT  BALLAST  INDUSTRY 
OF  GAGE  COUNTY.  NEBRASKA 


BY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR 


THE  FLINT  BALLAST  INDUSTRY  OF  GAGE  COUNTY 

NEBRASKA 


By  Erwin  Hinckley  Barbour 


Ten  years  ago  the  cherty  limestone  ledges  of  Wymore 
and  Blue  Springs  in  Gage  county  stood  unappreciated  and 
relatively  undeveloped.  Though  viewed  then  as  so  much 
waste  land  extending  for  several  miles  along  the  Blue 
liver,  these  same  bluffs  are  now  considered  a natural  re- 
source of  consequence,  and  three  mills  base  their  industry 
on  these  selfsame  beds. 


4 to  5 ft. 
soil 

4 to  6 ft. 
loose  rock 


4 ft.  flinty 
limestone 


2*4  ft. ‘ cut 
tintr  ’ stone 


7 to  9 ft. 

flinty 

limestone 


4 ft. 
rubble 


A Item  a t- 
injr  lime- 
stf>ne  and 
shale 


FUG.  1.  Prior  to  189;')  the  flinty  limestone  ledges  of  Gage  county 
stood  as  waste  land,  unappreciated  and  practically  undeveloped.  Com- 
pare with  succeeding  views.  This  is  a representative  section.  Photo- 
graph by  C.  .\.  Fisher,  for  the  Xebraska  Geological  Survey. 


234 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


A wholesome  lesson  in  the  development  of  onr  idle  re- 
sources may,  be  drawn  from  these  ^ ‘ worthless  ’ ’ flint  ledges, 
and  one  must  reiterate  the  statement  that  if  onr  natural 
resources  are  few,  it  is  incnmhent  to  make  of  them  the  most 
possible. 

The  history  of  the  flint  ballast  industry  is  brief  and 
worth  recording  for  the  instruction  of  those  who  may  have 
in  mind  the  development  of  similar  resources. 

THE  G.  H.  DAVIS  QUARRY 

About  1895  two  young  men,  Frank  K.  Mayne,  and 
M.  H.  Reed,  leased  the  larger  of  the  two  tracts  now  known 
as  the  (j.  H.  Davis  quarry. 

In  1900  Mr.  Reed  retired  from  this  company  and  sold 
Ids  interests  to  Mr.  5V.  AV.  Black.  The  firm  of  Black  and 
Mayne  then  purchased  the  above  mentioned  tract  which 
is  shown  in  the  map  Fig.  9,  and  which  contains  25.25  acres. 


FIG.  2.  The  crusher  and  quarry  of  ]\Ir.  G.  H.  Davis  southeast 
of  Blue  Springs  and  Wymore,  on  the  tracks  of  the  Union  Pacific  and 
Burlington  railroads,  huilt  1904,  burned  Sept.,  1 906,  rebuilt  April  1 907. 
Mr.  G.  B.  Cunningham,  foreman.  Negative  No.  2-27-1-09  Hon.  Charles 
H.  Morrill's  collection  of  geological  photographs. 


THE  G.  H.  DAVIS  QUARRY  23  3 

In  Jan.  1902  the  interests  of  Mr.  Black  were  transferred 
to  Mr.  Gr.  H.  Davis  and  business  was  continued  under  the 
firm  name  of  Davis  and  Mayne  until  Sept.  17,  1906. 

In  1903  Mr.  G.  H.  Davis  purchased  and  added  to  the 
quarry  site  a small  tract  of  14.2  acres  adjoining. 

In  1904  tliis  new  firm  built  its  first  stone  crushing 
plant,  which  was  similar  though  smaller  than  the  i^resent 
one  shown  in  figure  2.  It  contained  one  No.  3 crusher, 
whereas  the  present  plant  has  No.  3 and  No.  5 crushers. 
The  mill  and  quarry  is  in  charge  of  Mr.  G.  B.  Cunningham, 
foreman. 


FIG.  3.  A general  view  of  the  G.  H.  Davis  quarry  above  the 
crusher.  Greatest  thickness  of  (luarry  face  42  feet. 

Negfitive  No.  3-27-1-09  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill’s  collection  of 
geological  photographs. 

This  mill  was  ('omphdihy  destroyed  by  fire  on  tin* 
night  oi*  S(*))t.  4,  19()(5,  art(*r  whithi  Mi*.  Mayne ’s  interests 
were  transhoTcd  to  his  ))ai*tii(n*,  Mr.  G.  II.  Davis,  in  whos(‘ 
name  the*  hiisimqss  has  sinct*  hetm  conducted. 

Mr.  Davis  proc(*(‘d('d  to  build  the  ci'iishing  plant  on 
broadei*  nnd  bettin*  lin(‘S,  bnt  i'onnd  th(‘  s(*ai*city  of  lnnib(n* 


236 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


a serious  hindrance.  It  was  necessary  to  send  to  the 
Pacific  coast  for  the  heavy  timbers,  and  four  months  passed 
before  the  material  could  be  laid  down.  The  new  plant 
began  operations  April  19,  1907. 

The  following  is  a summary  of  the  output  and  the 
payroll  by  years: 

Year  Cars  shipped  Ain’t  of  payroll 


The  number  of  men  employed  varies  according  to  de- 
inand  from  50  to  80,  falling  occasionally  as  low  as  25,  and 
sometimes  reaching  100. 

The  financial  depression  shows  its  effect  in  the  pro- 
duction of  1908.  Of  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  state  Lincoln 
is  the  largest  consumer  of  this  stone.  Large  amounts  are 
shipped  to  points  in  northern  Kansas,  some  goes  to  Iowa, 
while  other  lots  go  as  far  as  South  Dakota,  Wyoming, 
and  Colorado. 

The  railroads,  particularly  the  Burlington  and  Union 
Pacific,  are  lieavy  Imyers  of  the  product. 

The  stone  of  this  quarry  is  used  principally  for  founda- 
tions, for  ballast,  for  concrete  work  of  all  kinds,  such  as 
liridges,  ])iers,  cement  dams,  etc. 

All  kinds  of  stone  considered,  the  capacity  of  the  G. 
II.  Davis  quarry  is  lOCO  tons  a day.  The  Union  Pacific 
tracks  pass  directly  under  the  bins  of  the  crusher,  which 
i>Teatly  facilitates  the  rapid  loading  of  cars. 

THE  S.  H.  ATWOOD  AND  COMPANY’S  WYMORE 
QUARRY 

in  Mar('h  1902  the  S.  11.  Atwood  Co.,  whose  name  must 
always  stand  assoHated  with  large  and  important  quarry 


1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 


813 

1,018 

1,280 

1,364 

1,316 

1,315 

747 


$ 8,623.85 
14,395.39 
21,426.49 
21,164.89 
21,647.83 
25,880,16 
14,121.56 


AWOOD  AND  COMPANY’S  WYMORE  QUARRY  "2^3?/ 

^operations  in  the  state,  bought  land,  and  built  the  first  crush- 
ing  plant  about  two  miles  southeast  of  Wy.more,  notwith- 
standing some  doubt  at  the  outset  as  to  the  probable 
success  of  the  undertaking.  However,  under  the  super- 
vision of  Mr.  W.  M.  Stewart,  foreman,  the  industry  flour- 
ished, and  soon  125  men  were  regularly  employed,  and 
active  operations  have  eontinued  with  a slight  depression 
due  to  the  panic  of  1907, 


FIG.  4.  S.  H.  Atwood  and  Co’s.  Wymore  quarry  and  crusher. 
Mr.  W.  M.  Stewart  foreman. 

Negative  No,  -3'-2  6--l“09  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill’s  -collection  of 
geological  photograjdis. 


On  1 put  of  the  Atwood  quarry: 


Year 

Tons 

Year 

Tons 

1902  . ....  . 

85,000  • 

1900 

100,000 

39o:t 

1907 

....  85,000  to  90,000 

1904 

. . . . . . 100,000 

1908 

45,009 

1905 

100,0(X.) 

Worth 

()K)c  to  05c  a ton 

Idle  })ulk,  flO  ])er  cent,  of  each  year’s  outjmt  was 
scr(*eii(Hl  liallast  for  railroads. 


In  addition  large  amounts  of  stone  were  produced  for 
foiindalions,  ('oiK'nvte  xvoi'k%  rip-rap,  and  other  uses  in 


2H8 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOaiCAL  SURVEY 


this  and  adjoining  states.  For  five  years  the  towns  and 
cities  of  Nebraska  have  drawn  heavily  upon  this  source 
of  supply  for  the  materials  used  in  concrete  base  for 
street  paving,  concrete  foundations  and  bridges,  and  for 
cement  side  walk.  The  stripping  is  light,  there  being 
five  feet  of  overlying  dark  “ Loess, (presumably  boulder- 
(ess  Drift  resembling  Loess).  Some  10  to  15  acres  of  stone, 
averaging  20  feet  in  thickness  have  been  removed,  and 
a quarry  face  three-  quarters  of  a mile  in  length  exposed. 
At  the  point  of  greatest  thickness  the  quarry  face 
measures  20  feet,  but  a pretty  uniform  thickness  of  20 
feet  is  maintained. 

In  quari-ying,  the  rock  is  first  ‘‘sx)rung’^  with  dynamite, 
and  then  thrown  down  with  })owder,  some  15  to  20  kegs 
being  used  at  a shot. 


FIG.  5.  Main  face  in  the  S.  H.  Atwood  and  Go’s.  Wymore  quarry. 
This  cherty  ledge  has  been  exposed  for  % of  a mile  by  the  removal 
of  10  to  15  acres  of  rock.  Average  thickness  2 0 feet. 

Negative  No.  6-26-1-09,  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill’s  collection  of 
geological  photographs. 


THE  UNION  PACIFIC  QUARRY 


2?>Si 


THE  UNION  PACIFIC  QUARRY 

Preliminary  to  biiilding  a crushing  plant,  Mr.  E.  IL 
Ulrich,  Superintendent  of  quarries  for  tlie  Union  Pacific 
R.  R.  Co.,  purchased  land  within  a mile  of  Blue  Springs. 
Work  was  begun  on  the  crusher,  offices,  and  related  build* 
ings  April  20,  1906,  and  crushing  operations  began  June 
25,  1906.  Owing  to  the  proximity  of  ample  material,  wheel- 
barrows were  at  first  used  to  carry  rock  to  the  chutes. 
As  the  quarry  face  retreated  teams  and  stone  carts  were 
substituted,  the  work  of  development  jirogressed  rapidly, 
and  soon  40  to  50  men,  largely  Bulgarians,  were  regularly 
employed  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  William  G. 
Powell.  The  price  of  labor  varies  from  $2.00  to*  $2.50  a 


FIG.  6.  The  Union  Pacific  crusher  and  quarry,  Blue  Springs, 
Nebraska.  Mr.  William  E.  Powell  in  charge. 

Negative  No.  4-27-1-09,  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill’s  collection  of 
geological  photographs. 

day.  Sti’ict  regulations  av(‘1-(‘  (*nfor<*(Ml  by  the  conqiany 
to  safeguard  the  enq)loye(‘s  against  a('('id(nits  incident  to 
blasting  and  (juari'V  operations,  and  a f(‘(‘  of  fifty  cents  a 
niontli  was  d(‘dnct(‘d  fi'om  (qu'li  (jiiaiayman ’s  monthly  pay- 


^40 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURTET 


check  to  entitle  him  to  proper  medical  and  surgical  treat- 
ment by  the  company’s  local  physician,  at  Blue  Springs^ 
or  if  preferred  in  a Kansas  City  liospitaL 

Output  of  the  Union  Paeifie  quarry: 

1906  Ballast  Tons  Screenings  Tons  Rip-rap  Tons-> 


June  & July  64  cai\s 

2380. 

. .-  10  cars 

. ..  290.-.,  1 

car . . 

Aug 

. . 163 

. . 6395 . 

. ..  40  “ . 

. ..1335.. 

Sept 

. .163 

..  7422. 

...35  . 

1255 . . 

Oct..  . . . 

. . 186 

. . 8559. 

...21  " . 

..  776., 

Nov 

...  74 

..  3410. 

2 

...  72... 

Dec ...... 

...  85 

i J. 

. , 3577 . 

...  7 

...  270... 

1906... 

1U07 

. .7  Jo 

..31743. 

...115  . 

....  3998... 

..  30» 

Jan’y . . . . 

..  69 

ti. 

...  2843. 

...  16  . 

. . . 646 . . 

Feb 

..  T2 

..  1770. 

. . . 11 

....  418... 

March 

..  90 

...  3526. 

...12  ‘‘  . 

...  506 . .. 

April 

. . 1-n 

..  5403. 

..  ..  15  , 

....  644..  4 

..  209’ 

May 

, .123 

..  5794. 

....  13 

. . ..  611..  6 

..  29T 

June  . . . 

. . 105 

...  5709. 

...  14  . 

...  655 . . 

July 

. . loa 

i 

. . 5665 . 

. . . 16  . 

...  S03... 

Aug 

..114 

‘ - 

..  6259. 

...  17  •• 

. . . 796 . . 

Sept 

33 

. . 1438. 

. ..  6 . 

...  223.. 34 

..1388« 

Oct  

22 

. 1057. 

...  4 . 

.. . . 209  _ 

1907  . 

. .822 

..39464. 

...124  . 

...5511.. 

Total 

...1557 

. 71207. 

..  .239 

9509  ...45 

“ ..1924 

THE  UNION  PACIFIC  QUARRY 


241 


FIG.  7.  Main  face  in  the  Union  Pacific  Quarry,  Blue  Springs, 
"showing  a narrow  bed  of  fiinty  limestone  above  at  A.  and  a nine 
foot  bed  below  at  B.  The  flint  nodules  are  nearly  continuous. 

Negative  No.  5-27-1-09,  Hen.  Charles  H.  Morrill’s  collection  of 
geological  photographs. 


FIG.  9.  Flint  ballast  in  use,  Burlington  Route. 


242' 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Pei n sal  of  the  foregoing  results  shows  that  the  flint 
beds  of  Gage  county  yield  a total  product  of  100,000  tons 
to  140,000  tons  or  more  per  year,  valued  at  $65,000  to 
$100,000,  that  100  to  200  men  find  employment  at  $2.00 
to  $3.00  a day,  and  that  within  a very  few  years  a commend- 
able industry  has  been  developed. 


FIG.  8.  Map  showing  the  location  of  the  flint  or  cherty  limestones 
of  the  Permo-carboniferous  along  the  Blue  river  at  Blue  Springs  and 
Wymore,  Nebraska.  The  Union  Pacific  quarry,  a mile  southeast  of  Blue 
Springs,  the  G.  H.  Davis  quarry  beyond,  and  the  S.  H.  Atwood  quarry, 
Wymore,  are  each  indicated  in  black,  the  position  of  the  crushers  in 
each  case  being  left  blank. 

The  University  of  Nebraska. 

Febr.  1909 


(Printed  and  distributed  March  1909.) 


15 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

EDWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  State  Geologist 

. VOLUME  3 

PART  6 

A NEW  GENUS  OF  RHINOCEROS 
FROM  SIOUX  COUNTY, 
NEBRASKA 


HAROLD  J.  COOK 


A NEW  GENUS  OF  RHINOCEROS  FROM  SIOUX  COUNTY, 

NEBRASKA  * 


By  Harold  J.  Cook 

The  present  geims  is  based  on  a siieeiinen  (Xo.  H.  C. 
105,  CYll.  of  tlie  writer)  fonnd  in  an  ex])osnre  of  the  Lower 
Hariison  beds,  on  the  rancli  of  Mv.  Janies  TL  (\)ok,  at 
Agate,  Sionx  Comity,  X'ebraska,  at  a point  about  four 
miles  west  of  the  Agate  Spring  Fossil  Quarry.  The  bone- 
bearing horizon  at  this  spot  is  nearly  if  not  identicadly  the 
same  as  that  in  the  Agate  Spring  (^)narry,  and  these  beds 
— tlie  Lower  Harrison — are  now  quite  well  established  as 
a phase  of  the  Lower  Mioeene. 

Tlie  type  consists  of  a good  skull,  part  of  tlie  left 
mandilile,  and  the  atlas  and  axis.  All  are  splendidly 
])reserved,  save  that  the  sknll  has  been  slightly  twisted 
laterally  in  the  region  of  the  nasals.  These  remains  were 
closely  associated  witli  those  of  the  little  fonr-horned  an- 
telope-like Syndyoceras,  the  three-  toed  horse  Parahippns, 
a small  camel,  and  other  animals. 

In  an  earlier  paper,  this  specimen  was  provisionally 
referred  to  tlie  genns  Aceratherinm  (Coenopns),-  but  snb- 
se(jnent  study  seems  to  warrant  its  being  generically 
siqiarated  from  that  genns.  Therefore,  the  name  Meta- 
coenopns  is  proposed. 

In  ^fetac'oenopns  there  is  but  one  upper  incisoi*,  in 
contrast  with  two  in  Coenopns.  The  brain  case  is  pro- 
portioiially  largco*,  the  sknll  is  more  robust,  particularly 
in  the  anterior  ])ortion,  and  is  relatively  deeper  than  in  the 
lattei*  genns.  T\\(\  nasals  are  longer  and  heavier,  as  are  the 
])i-emaxilhi(‘.  'Hie  t(‘eth  are  somewhat  more  hypsodont, 
and  the  mandible  is  deiqHM-  and  heavier  than  in  (^)enopns. 
The  contour  of  the  sknll  is  (piite  dilferent,  being  more 
smoothly  tnni(‘d  than  in  any  known  speices  (>f  (\umopns, 
and  it  do(*s  not  nan-ow  so  I'aiiidly  anteriorly. 

In  till*  ty))(‘  of  ]\r.  (‘gr(*gins,  th(‘  nasals  are  V(‘ry  long, 
extending  well  Ixyvond  th(‘  prinnaxilhne  There  is  a slight 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


2 4t) 

downward  thickening  of  the  nasals  at  the  point  where  a 
horn  usually  occurs  in  the  Rhinocerotidae,  which  may 
indicate  a rudimentary  horn,  but  it  is  (piite  different  from 
the  type  of  develojunent  found  in  the  nasals  of  the  Dicer- 
atheres.  The  skull  is  relatively  longer,  proportionately 
narrower,  and  deeper  than  that  of  the  contemporary 
Diceratheres.  The  atlas,  axis,  and  mandible  are  heavier, 
and  the  mandible  lacks  the  outward  turn  or  flange  com- 
monly found  in  the  Diceratheres.^  fldie  shape  and  propor- 
tions of  the  nasals  differ  radically  in  these  two  genera, 
being  much  longer  and  situated  higher  above  the  premax- 
illae in  Metacoeno})us,  and  not  showing  the  double-horn 
tendency  found  in  Diceratherium. 

M.  egregius  appears  to  agree  best  among  the  known 
species  with  Coenopus  ( Aceratherium)  occidentalis,  Leidy, 
found  in  the  middle  Oligocene  of  ^ outh  Dakota  and  Ne- 
braska, but  is  a much  more  advanced  type  in  many  re- 
spects, notably  in  the  development  of  the  brain,  the  loss 
of  an  incisor,  and  the  increased  size.  The  anterior  portion 
of  the  skull  of  Metacoeuopus  egregius  is  relatively  and 
actually  longer  and  heavier  than  that  of  Coenopus  occi- 
dentalis, and  the  skull  of  tlie  latter  is  mucii  more  sharply 
pointed.  Both  the  nasals  and  prema5:illae  are  longer  and 
heavier,  and  the  nasal  aperture  is  much  larger  in  the 
former  type.  M.  egregius  was  a much  heavier  animal  than 
C.  occidentalis. 

In  M.  egregius,  the  temporal  ridges  unite  in  forming 
a sagittal  crest,  which  rises  quite  abiuptly  near  the  occiput, 
adding  materially  to  the  general  saddle-shaped  appearance 
of  the  skull. 

The  grinding  teeth  show  a comparatively  simple  pat- 
tern, and  the  first  premolar  is  essentially  a functional 
grinding  tooth.  On  the  iiremolars,  the  cingulum  extends 
around  the  front  and  inner  sides.  The  premolars  are 
simple,  having  no  anticrochet  and  only  a suggestion  of  a 
crochet.  The  metaloph  in  the  fourth  upper  premolar  is 
not  reduced  in  relation  to  the  protoloph  as  in  Coenopus,  but 
is  strongly  developed.  In  tlie  u])per  molars,  the  anti- 


MEASUREMENTS 


247 


crochet  is  somewhat  developed  in  the  first  and  second,  a 
moderate  crochet  is  present,  and  a small  crista  appears  in 
M A . The  cingulum  on  the  molars  is  interrupted  on  the 
internal  face  opposite  both  the  protocone  and  liypocone. 


Dental  formula:  It  p4  m4 

MEASUREMENTS 

Mm. 

Greatest  length 47^1 

Extreme  width  across  zygomatic  arclies 245 

Distance  between  orbits  across  frontals 140 

Width  of  brain  case 90 

Length  of  upper  molar-premolar  seiles-left  side....  202 

Length  of  upper  molars,  left  side 102 

Length  of  lower  molars,  left  side.  ...  100 

Length  of  diastema  P.  1 to  ineisor 01 


I larold  James  ( V)ok 


American  Museum  of  Xatural  llistoi'y, 
XTew  York,  December  9,  190S. 


(Printed  and  distributed  .Marcli,  IHOiO 


1.  See  Am.  Nat.  Vol.  XLII,  .4ug.  190S. 

2.  See  Leidy  Proc.  Ac  Nat.  Sci.  1850,  119,  276;  1853,  392;  1857, 

89;  1 865,  1 76;  Owen’s  Rep.  Geol.  Surv.,  Wisconsin,  etc.  1 852, 

552.  Leidy,  Proc.  Ac.  Nat.  Sci.,  1 85  1 331;  1 854,  1 57;  Leidy. 

Jo.  Ac.  Nat.  Sci..  Vol.  VII,  p.  220,  1 869.  Osborn;  Mem.  Am.  Mu. 
Nat.  Hist.,  pp.  1 50-158. 

3.  See  Barbour,  Nebr.  Geol.  Survey,  Vol.  2,  Part  4.  See  Peterson, 

Science,  XXIV,  No.  609,  pp.  281-282,  1 906.  See  Annals  of  the 

Carnegie  Museum,  Vol.  IV,  No.  1,  1 906. 


248 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY, 


EXPLAXA TIOX  OF  PLATE  ] 

Three  views,  A.  top.  B.  palutine.  C.  side  vie w of  skull  of  Metacoenopus  Pljrrejrius.  Nt 
natural  size. 


NEBRASKA  GEOLO'JICAL  SURVEY 


VOLUxME  8.  PART  (i.  1‘EATF.  1 


SKUI.E  OF  METACOENOPdS  EOKECJIUS.  (’OOK.  ‘t 


library 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS  , ^ 


,f  .'  /'T  ■ _•  •■ 


16 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  STATE  GEOLOGIST 

VOLUME  3 

PART  7 


A SLAB  FROM  THE  BONE  BEDS  OF  SIOUX  COUNTY 


BY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR 


Scientific  Contribution 
Geological  fund  of  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill 


Xolmiska  ( loolosxicnl  Survey  Part  7,  Plate 


A Slab  from  the  Bone  Beds  at  Agate,  Sioux  County,  Nebraska.  Slab  No.  3.  Collection  ot  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill,  Geological 

Expedition,  1908. 


Explanation  of  Plate  I. 


The  slab  shown  in  Plate  I was  cut  out  of  the  bone  beds,  Morrill 
Quarry,  University  Hill,  at  Agate,  Nebraska,  on  the  ranch  of 
Mr.  James  H.  Cook.  Enough  of  the  rocky  matrix  has  been  chiseled 
off  to  expose  most  of  the  inclosed  bones.  The  slab  is  designed  to 
show  the  public  the  significance  of  the  words  “bone  quarry.” 
It  is  mounted  in  a heavy  oak  frame  with  plate  glass  front,  and 
is  attached  to  a wall  in  the  State  Museum.  Dimensions,  6|  feet 
by  4 feet. 

Parts  of  the  following  animals  are  represented:  Rhinoceros, 
especially  Diceratherium;  Moropus  cooki  and  parvus;  Dinohyus; 
Dinocyon,  etc.  At  the  top  to  the  left  of  center  may  be  seen  the 
canine  and  three  incisors  of  a young  Dinohyus.  The  length  of 
canine,  measured  on  outer  curve,  is  11  inches;  large  incisor  7 inches. 
The  cervical  vertebra  at  top,  center,  is  Moropus  parvus;  the  large 
metacarpal,  right  lower  corner  is  Moropus  cooki. 

Most  of  the  smaller  bones  are  Diceratherium  arikarense. 

This  specimen  was  prepared  by  Edwin  G.  Davis,  University 
of  Nebraska,  Class  1909.  Four  such  bone-slabs  have  been  secured 
by  the  Morrill  Geological  Expeditions,  which  are  sent  out  annually 
from  the  University  of  Nebraska. 

They  attract  the  attention  of  all  visitors,  who  count  them 
interesting  and  instructive  specimens,  as  well  as  unique. 

Nebraska  State  Museum, 

The  University  of  Nebraska, 

June  1,  1909. 


(Printed  and  distributed  June  26,  1909). 


17 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  STATE  GEOLOGIST 

VOLUME  3 

PART  8 • 

RESTORATION  OF  DICERATHERIUM  ARIKARENSE, 
A NEW  FORM  OF  PANEL  MOUNT 


ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR 


Scientific  Contribution 
Geological  fund  of  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill 


(loological  Siirvey  Vol.  3,  Part  8,  Plate 


o 

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The  University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln. 


Explaxatiox  of  Plate  1 


Plate  1 is  supplementary  to  a brief  paper  on  Diceratheriuin 
arikarense,  entitled,  Notice  of  a New  Fossil  Rhinoceros  from  Sioux 
County,  Nebraska,  Vol.  2,  part  4,  Nebraska  Geological  Survey. 

The  plan,  which  is  original,  so  far  as  the  author  knows,  is  to 
show  the  skeleton  properly  articulated,  with  each  and  every  bone 
removable  for  study,  and  back  of  it  the  conjectural  image  of  the 
creature  in  life  modeled  in  low  relief  upon  the  background. 

The  public  at  large  is  thus  enabled  to  see  at  a glance  the  re- 
lation of  parts,  and  the  repeated  expressions  of  admiration  and 
gratification  evidence  the  utility  of  the  experiment. 

Though  the  work  is  incomplete,  it  has  nevertheless  reached 
a stage  where  it  may  be  figured. 

Corrections  are  to  be  made  in  the  skeleton  itself,  and  the 
background  is  to  be  embellished  with  a distant  group  of  Diceratheres 
with  natural  surroundings  modeled  upon  the  background  so  un- 
obtrusively as  to  detract  in  no  respect  from  the  central  object. 
The  panel  is  eight  feet  by  four  feet  and  eight  inches,  mounted  in 
heavy  oak.  and  is  to  be  displayed  in  a special  case. 

The  skeleton  is  restored  from  bones  secured  in  the  famous 
Agate  Springs  bone  quarry,  Sioux  County,  Nebraska,  on  the  ranch 
of  Mr.  James  H.  Cook,  where,  due  to  his  generosity,  so  many 
museums  and  institutions  of  learning  have  been  enriched  during 
the  decade. 

This  form  of  mount  has  proven  to  be  so  suggestive,  instructive, 
and  acceptable  to  the  public  that  other  animals,  from  this  and 
neighboring  horizons,  secured  by  the  various  Morrill  Geological 
Expeditions,  are  to  be  set  up  in  a like  manner. 

Nebraska  State  Museum, 

The  University  of  Nebraska, 

June  15,  1909. 


(Printed  and  distributed  June  30) 


18 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  State  Geologist 

VOLUME  3 

PART  9 


Some  New  Carnivora  From  the  Lower 
Miocene  Beds  of  Western  Nebraska. 

By  HAROLD  JAMES  COOK 


' .-K 


1;\ 


V ^ 


Some  New  Carnivora  From  the  Lower 
Miocene  Beds  of  Western  Nebraska 


By  Harold  James  Cook 

During  the  autumn  of  1907  the  writer  was  fortunate 
enough  to  discover  a ‘‘pocket”  of  bones  in  the  Lower  Harri- 
son beds,  about  two  miles  north  of  the  Agate  Spring  Quarries, 
near  Agate,  Sioux  County,  Nebraska,  and  in  probably  the 
same  horizon  as  these  quarries.  While  the  specimens  so  far 
obtained  in  this  “pocket”  are  generally  more  or  less  damaged 
and  fragmentary,  they  represent  a large  variety  of  animals, 
of  which  several  appear  to  be  undescribed.  Among  these  are 
several  si)ecies  of  Carnivora,  but  owing  to  the  fragmentary 
condition  of  most  of  these  specimens,  only  three  forms  from 
this  location  will  be  here  described. 

It  will  be  noted  that  three  of  the  four  genera  herein  men- 
tioned are  ty])ical  of  the  John  Day, — and  that  the  present 
species  show  advancement  over  the  typical  s])ecies, — wliile 
tlie  fourth  genus,  Daphoenodon,^  is  typical  of  the  present  for- 
mation and  locality,  and  is  an  advanced  foim  of  the  Oligo- 
cene  Da])hoenus  line  of  dogs. 

This  is  but  added  proof  of  the  geological  position  of  the 
lower  Harrison  beds. 

It  is  ])robable  that  the  Upper  Rosebud  beds  (of  Mattliew 
and  Gidley)  represent  a somewhat  later  period  than  the 
Lower  Harrison,  and  it  may  be  tliat  the  specimen  herein  re- 
ferred to  Oligobunis  cf.  lepidiis^’  (the  tyj)e  of  whicJi  was  found 
in  the  Up])er  Rosebud)  will  ])rove  to  belong  to  a rather  more 
primitive  animal  than  the  tyi)ical  ().  lepidus,  and  may  well 

1 —  O.  A.  Peterson,  Science,  N.  S.,  Vol.  XXIX,  No.  476,  pp.  620-621. 

2 —  W,  1).  Matthew,  Bull.  Ain.  Mu.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  XXIII,  Art.  IX, 
pp.  194-19.7. 


262 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


prove  to  be  approximately  ancestral  to  the  latter  form,  when 
better  material  is  found. 

Temnocyoid  has  not  previously  been  reported  from  beds 
as  late  as  these,  and  while  the  forms  herein  presented  are 
somewhat  intermediate  between  the  typical  Temnocyon  and 
Mesocyon,  they  appear  to  the  writer  to  be  closer  to  the  former 
genus,  particularly  in  tooth  structure. 

Eyerman  separates  Hypotemnodon  (=Mesocyon)  from 
Temnocyon,  by;  inferior  molar  2 tubercular  with  internal 
cusps  equalling  in  size  those  of  the  external  side:  whereas  in 
Temnocyon,  Cope,  we  find  M.  with  trenchant  crown,  and  no 
internal  cusps. 

The  larger  species  herein  described  has  the  more  typical 
Temnocyon  dentition,  but  is  the  most  robust  type  so  far  de- 
scribed. In  the  smaller  species  here  described,  the  palate  is 
broad  and  short,  in  direct  opposition  to  the  condition  found  in 
T.  altigenis  and  T.  ferox,  and  similar  to  that  found  typically 
in  Mesocyon;  but  the  dentition  is  nearer  to  Temnocyon. 

The  writer  is  especially  indebted  to  Prof.  H.  F.  Osborn 
and  Dr.  AV.  D.  Matthew  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History  for  courtesies  extended,  and  to  B.  S.  Butler  for  the 
drawing  of  the  types  in  this  paper. 

CAXIDAE. 

TEMNOCYON  VENATOR,  sp.  nov. 

The  type  of  the  present  species  (No.  H C 223)  consists 
of  a very  fair  skull  and  mandible.  The  skull  had  been  broken 
just  posterior  to  the  orbits  and  through  the  pterogoid.  The 
premaxillae,  nasals,  and  most  of  the  frontals  are  missing. 
Although  there  was  not  a very  certain  contact  between  the 
anterior  and  posterior  halves  of  the  skull,  they  were  found 
only  a few  inches  apart,  and  the  lower  jaws  appear  to  fit  the 
skull,  so  it  seems  certain  that  these  parts  pertain  to  the  same 
individual. 

The  skull  indicates  a mature  animal,  and  the  teeth  show 

3 — E.  D.  Cope,  Tert.  Vert.  pp.  902-914  J.  C.  Merriam,  Bull.  Dept. 
Geol.  Uni.  of  Calif.,  Vol.  5,  No.  1,  pp.  16-29. 


NEW  CARNIVORA  FROM  MIOCENE  BEDS 


263 


Fig.  1.  Ttniriocyoii  Venator.  Type  specinKii.  Palatal  view  of  cranium 
natural  size.  No.  II  C 223. 


264 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


but  little  wear.  The  dentition  is  very  similar  to  that  of  T. 
walloviannsd  Cope,  but  is  mndi  more  crowded,  particularly 
the  premolars,  owing  to  a shortening  of  the  facial  region. 
This  is  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  not  only  are  there  no 
spaces  between  the  premolars,  bnt  the  premolars  were  com- 
])elled  to  set  cpiite  transversely  in  the  jaw,  particularly  P-  and 
P^.  The  lower  dentition  is  correspondingly  crowded. 

Tlie  n})])er  sectorial  is  of  almost  identical  size  in  T.  wallo- 
vianns  and  T.  Venator,  and  has  a fairly  well  developed  deuter- 
ocone,  though  less  prominent  than  in  the  John  Day  forms. 
J\P  is  constricted  antero-posterioiiy  along  the  median  valley 
more  than  in  T.  wallovianns,  as  figured  by  Cope,  and  has  a 
strongly  develoiied  parastyle,  more  nearly  like  that  found  in 
Mesocyon  cory|)haeus,“  Cope.  M"  is  more  reduced  in  the 
])resent  s])ecies.  has  the  metaconid  greatly  reduced  and 
the  typical  trenchant  heel,  but  more  reduced  in  size  than  in 
T.  altigenis.  There  is  a very  slight  internal  cingulum  sug- 
gesting the  entoconid,  of  almost  exactly  the  size  found  in  the 
type  of  T.  altigenis.  The  lower  premolars  have  less  elevated 
cusps  than  the  latter  species,  and  are  more  heavily  construct- 
ed. Po,  (the  only  lower  premolar  ]>reserved  in  the  type)  is 
much  reduced  in  size.  M3  was  small  and  single  rooted.  The 
lower  canine  is  large  and  rounded  anteriorly,  but  unfortu- 
nately the  enamel  is  damaged  on  the  posterior  side  of  both 
lower  canines,  so  it  is  impossible  to  state  the  nature  of  the 
posterior  trenchant  edge. 

The  mandible  is  shallower  than  in  the  type  of  T.  altigenis.® 
The  skull  is  relatively  short  and  broad.  The  postglenoid  pro- 
cess is  long  and  acute.  The  postglenoid  foramen  is  situated 
about  4 mm.  farther  from  the  median  line  of  the  skull  than 
the  lowest  part  of  the  postglenoid  process,  thus  being  farther 
out  than  in  T.  altigenis,  as  described  by  Prof.  J.  C.  Merriam. 
The  other  foramina  are  practically  as  in  T.  altigenis.  The 
tympanic  bullae  are  large  and  expanded.  The  palate  is  short 

4 — E.  D.  Cope,  Tert.  Vert.  PL.  LXX,  No.  10. 

r> — E.  D.  Cope,  Tert.  Vert.  PL.  LXXI  No.  2. 

6 — E.  D.  Cope,  Tert.  Vert., PL.  LXVIII,  No.^  9. 


NEW  CARNIVORA  FROM  MIOCENE  BEDS 


265 


Fig.  2.  Temnocyon  Venator.  Type  specimen.  Natural  size.  Left  ramus, 
and  crown  view  of  M^,  M No.  H C 2 2 3. 


266 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


and  broad,  in  direct  contrast  to  that  of  T.  altigenis  and  T. 
ferox,  in  which  the  palate  is  very  narrow,  especially  in  the 
latter. 

This  specimen  was  found  about  one-half  mile  west  of 
Agate,  Nebraska,  in  the  Lower  Harrison  beds,  and  in  approx- 
imately the  same  horizon  as  the  Agate  Spring  Quarries. 

TEMXOCYOX  PERCUSSOR,  sp.  nov. 

Type,  (Xo.  II  C 116)  a damaged  pair  of  lower  jaws,  with 
a nearly  complete  dental  series  of  an  adult  animal,  little  worn. 
This  species  compares  most  closely  in  size  to  T.  ferox,'  Eyer- 
man,  but  the  type  specimen  is  somewhat  larger  in  this  species 
than  in  the  type  of  ferox,  and  the  dentition  is  of  rather  dif- 
ferent proportions.  The  teeth  are  all  very  robust. 

Ml  is  distinctly  longer  than  P4  in  T.  percussor,  while  in 
T.  ferox  the  antero-posterior  diameter  of  these  two  teeth  is 
nearly  the  same.  Mi  has  the  typical  trenchant  telonid  which 
is  strongly  developed,  with  a vestigeal  tubercle  on  the  slight 
cingulum  representing  the  entoconid.  The  metaconid  is  fairly 
well  developed.  The  premolars  are  tall,  as  in  T.  altigenis,  but 
much  more  robust.  P4  has  the  prominent  accessory  cusp  well 
developed  on  the  posterior  side  of  the  protoconid  which  is 
typical  in  the  genus  Temnocyon,  and  a broad,  rounded,  basal 
heel  (3mm.  in  antero-posterior  breadth).  M2  is  relatively 
large,  with  a well  developed  protoconid.  Unfortunately  both 
jaws  were  broken  at  the  posterior  side  of  M2,  so  that  it  is 
im])ossible  to  tell  anything  abcut  iM.v  The  canine  was  large 
and  elliptical,  showing  no  distinct  posterior  cutting  edge. 
(There  is  some  doubt  as  to  this  canine, — the  right  upper — be- 
longing to  the  same  individual  as  the  jaws,  but  as  they  were 
found  closely  associated,  they  probably  belong  together). 

This  s})ecimen  was  found  in  the  same  location  as  the 
above  species. 

XOTIIOCYOX  sp. 

A fragment  of  a left  mandilile  (Xo.  II  C 115)  containing 

7 — J.  Eyerman,  Am.  Geol.  Vol.  17,  p.  267. 


NEW  CARNIVORA  FROM  MIOCENE  BEDS 


267 


Fig.  3.  Temnocyon  percussor.  Type  specimen.  Left  lower  jaw  and 
crown  view  of  teeth.  Natural  size.  No.  H C 116. 


268 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


a sectorial  apparently  represents  a large  species  of  Xotliocyon, 
somewhat  larger  and  heavier  than  X.  geismarianns,®  Cope. 
(As  figured  in  Tert.  Vert.,  pi.  LXX,  fig.  2.) 

There  is  a slight  cingnlnm  rnnning  around  the  front  of 
the  tooth  from  the  base  of  the  protoconid  interiorly  to  the  base 
of  the  protoconid  exteriorly.  The  entoconid  and  iiypoconid 
are  nearly  equally  developed.  There  is  a minnte  accessory 
cnsp  between  the  entoconid  and  metaconid.  This  cnsp  is  also 
l)resent  in  X.  annectens,  Peterson,  and  although  I am  not  en- 
tirely certain  that  it  is  present  in  the  type  specimen,  the  draw- 
ing (fig.  15,  p.  55,  Annals  Carnegie  Mns.  Vol.  IV)  seems  to 
indicate  its  presence.  It  is  present  in  two  specimens  in  the 
collections  of  the  writer.  The  metaconid  is  rather  heavy. 

DAPHOEXODOX  PEPICULOSUS  sp.  nov. 

This  species  is  represented  by  the  right  mandible  of  a 
rather  old  individual  (Xo.  H C 222)  with  a fairly  complete 
dental  series.  It  is  perhaps  most  closely  related  to  Daphoeno- 
don  snpnrbns,^  bnt  it  shows  some  marked  differences. 

The  mandible  is  built  on  a very  robust  plan,  and  indi- 
cates a heavier  and  more  dolichocephalic  skull  than  in  snpnr- 
bns.  The  premolar  region  is  longer  and  the  dentition  less- 
crowded  than  in  the  latter  species. 

Ml  is  relatively  smaller,  and  Mo  and  Ms  relatively  larger 
than  in  the  type  of  D.  snpnrbns.  Although  Mg  is  absent,  the 
alveolns  indicates  that  it  was  nearly  as  large  as  Mo.  The  pre- 
molars, except  the  first,  have  a posterior  cnsp,  similar  to  that 
found  in  some  species  of  CAnis,  Tephyrocyon,^*^  and  other 
genera. 

If  the  drawings  in  Mr.  Peterson ’s  paper  be  correct  in  this 
respect,  this  cnsp  does  not  appear  in  Po,  or  Pg,  of  the  type  of 
Daphoenodon  snpnrbns, — and  it  certainly  does  not  appear  in 
two  specimens  referred  to  the  latter  species,  in  the  collections 

8 —  E.  D.  Cope,  Tert.  Vert.  PL.  LXX,  Xo.  2. 

9 —  O.  A.  Peterson,  Annals  Cam.  Mus.  Vol.  IV,  Xo.  1,  pp.  51-53,. 
PL.  XVIII. 

10 —  J.  C.  Merriam,  Bull.  Dept.  Geol.  Uni.  of  Calif.  Vo.  5,  No.  1,. 

pp.  6-10. 


NEW  CARNIVORA  FROM  MIOCENE  BEDS 


26i) 


Fig.  4.  Daphoenodon  periculosus.  Type  specimen.  Right  lower  jaw 
9,iid  crown  view  of  teeth,  natural  size.  No.  H C 2 2 2. 


270 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


of  the  writer.  This  accessory  cusp  is  vestigeal  in  Po,  hut 
quite  i^romineut  in  P3,  much  as  in  Canis  latrans.  The  heel  of 
P4  is  very  lieavy,  and  exjianded  transversely. 

Found  in  the  first  mentioned  quarry. 


This  specimen  (Xo.  H C 224)  was  also  obtained  in  the 
new  quarry  mentioned  first  in  this  article,  and  consists  of  a 
left  maxilla,  with  Pq  P^  and  P\  The  specimen  is  somewhat 
larger  than  the  type  of  0.  lepidus,  and  P^  was  present,  though 
greatly  reduced,  while  absent  in  the  type  of  lepidus.  The 
present  specimen  may  be  a somewhat  more  primative  form 
than  the  type  of  lepidus,  or  the  presence  or  absence  of  this 
tooth  may  well  be  a variable  character  in  this  species.  But 
until  more  complete  material  is  found,  little  more  can  be  defi- 
nitely said  concerning  the  relationship  of  these  animals. 


Fig.  5.  Nothocyon  sp  No.  H C 115.  Fig.  6.  Oligobunis  cf  lepidus,  Mat- 
Part  of  right  ramus,  external  view,  thew.  Left  maxilla,  external  view, 
and  crown  view  of  M^,  natural  size.  natural  size.  No.  H C 22  4. 


MUSTELIDAE. 


OLIGOBUNIS  cf.  LEPIDUS,  Matthew. 


Pi 


NEW  CARNIVORA  FROM  MIOCENE  BEDS 
MEASUREMENTS  OP  TYPE  SPECIMENS. 


271 


a. — approximately. 

c. — From  Cope’s  figures, 
Tert.  Vert.  PI.  LXX. 


3 

d 

cc 

0 

M 

in 

0 

a; 

d 

CJ 

0 

ci3 

Cj 

Length  of  skull,  incisors  to  condyles  inclusive.  . . .al75 

Width  of  palate  between  deuterocones  of  P^ 41 

Width  of  palate  between  canines a 25 

Greatest  width  of  zygomatic  arches ..all5 

Greatest  width  of  brain  case  51 

Length  of  superior  dentition,  posterior  side  of 

canines  to  posterior  side  of  M^ 54  c67  c77 

pi  antero-posterior  diameter c 6 

P2  antero-pcsterior  diameter 10  cll  c 9 

P3  antero-posterior  diameter cI3  cl3 

pi  antero-posterior  diameter 18  cl7  cl9 

Ml  antero-posterior  diameter r2.5cl2cl4 

M3  antero-posterior  diameter 5 c 4 c 7.5 

Length  of  mandible,  anterior  side  of  symphysis 

to  posterior  side  of  condyle 136 

Height  of  mandible  below  protoconid  of  M^ 25  28 

Length  of  bases  of  molars 14 

Length  of  premolar  region,  posterior  side  of  ca- 
nine to  M^ 29 

Length  of  inferior  dental  series,  posterior  side  of 

canine  to  posterior  side  of  M^ 69 

P^  antero-posterior  diameter 

P^  antero-posterior  diameter 

P antero-posterior  diameter 

diameter 

diameter 

diameter 


Ill 

8 


antero-posterior 
antero-posterior 
antero-posterior 
antero-posterior 
antero-posterior 
Length  of  heel. 


96 

11 

14 

17 

23 

16.5 


38.6 


8.5 

11 

14.6 

12 

16  14.2 

15 

19.5  21 

19 

18.5 

23.5  21.5 

8 

11.5 

14  13 

5 

6 

8 7 

5 

P3  Transverse  diameter 

pi  transverse  diameter  across  deuterocone 10  cll  cl2.5 

Ml  transverse  diameter  across  deuterocone 17  cl5  c20 

M2  transverse  diameter  across  deuterocone 9.5  c 9 cll 

Canine,  antero-posterior  diameter  at  tase  of  enamel  H 
Canine,  transverse  diameter  at  base  of  enamel.  . . H 
Canine,  height  above  base  of  enamel a23 


16 

25.3 

14 


272 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


MEASUREMENTS. 
TYPE  SPECIMENS. 

a. — From  drawing  on  PI.  XVIII. 
An.  Car.  Mus.,  Vol.  IV. 


O M 
'O  3 
O M 

« o 

Q ^ 


m 

.a 


m 


d 


Greatest  length  of  mandible 

Depth  of  mandible  below  protoconid  of  sectorial.  ; 

P^  antero-posterior  diameter 

P^  antero-posterior  diameter 

P^  antero-posterior  diameter 

P^  antero-posterior  diameter 

M^  antero-posterior  diameter 

M^  antero-posterior  diameter 

M^  antero-posterior  diameter  (Aprox.,  as  indicated  by  al- 
veolus)   

P transverse  diameter 

1 

P^  transverse  diameter 

P transverse  diameter 

3 

P transverse  diameter 

4 

M transverse  diameter 

1 

M^  transverse  diameter 

M”  transverse  diameter 

3 


mm. 

203 

38 

12 

14 

19 

24 

16 

14 

6 

7 

10 

11 

10 . 5 


mm. 

182 

a30 

6 

10 

13 
16 
25 

14 

9 

4 

5 

6 
8 

11 

10 


MEASUREMENTS. 

NOTHOCYON  SP. 


Depth  of  mandible  below  Protoconid  of  M^ 17 

M^,  antero-posterior  diameter 12.5 

M transverse  diameter 6 

1 

M^,  length  of  heel 4 


v^m 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


> 


i 


ir 


19 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  Staie  Geologist 

VOLUME  3 

PART  10 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 

By  ROY  V.  PEPPERBERG 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 

By  Roy  V.  Pepperberg 

UbUI  February,  1906,  Nebraska  was  termed  “tlu’  slate 
witlioiit  a mine,”  and  may  still  be  called  the  state  with  but 
a single  mine,  and  yet  it  would  be  impossible  to  tell  bow 
much  ])rospecting  lias  been  done,  or  to  estimate  the  number 
of  thousands  of  dollars  that  have  been  spent  in  this  state 
trying  to  develop  paying  mines  from  the  thin  beds  of  coal 
discovered  throughout  various  parts  of  the  state  in  the  Car- 
boniferous and  Cretaceous  formations. 

The  Cretaceous  is  a coal  producing  system  in  general,  espe- 
cially in  Colorado  and  Wyoming,  and  its  members  have 
played  an  important  part  in  the  history  of  coal  ])ros])ecting 
in  this  state. 

Hie  ])ui‘])ose  of  this  ])a])er  is  to  discuss  the  ocimrrence  of 
coal  in  Nebraska  in  the  different  formations,  which  outcrop 
throughout  the  state,  giving  particular  reference  to  the  bed 
which  is  now  being  worked  at  Peru,  Nebraska. 

A section  of  the  rocks  of  Nebraska  from  east  to  west 
across  the  state  may  be  seen  in  Ehg.  1. 

Pennsylvanian  Formation. 

The  formation  outcrops  along  the  Missouri  River  from  a 
point  north  of  Omaha  to  the  southeast  corner  of  the  state, 
along  the  Platte  River  from  Plattsmouth  west  to  Ashland, 
and  in  the  counties  south  of  these  points.  They  make  up  the 
surface  or  bed  rock  in  all  of  Richardson  and  Nemaha  coun- 
ties, nearly  all  of  Johnson,  Pawnee,  and  Otoe,  and  parts  of 

K<litoi’ial  \ote: 

After  completing  his  study,  and  after  passing  the  examination  required 
for  his  Masters  Degree,  the  writer  of  this  paper  submitted  the  following 
two-part  thesis: 

1.  Coal  in  Nebraska  (the  present  paper). 

2.  A ])reliminary  report  on  the  Carboniferous  Flora  of  Nebraska  (to 
be  publisbed  in  a succeeding  part.) 


278 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Cass,  Sarpy,  Douglass,  Washington,  Lancaster  and  Gage  coun- 
ties (See  Fig.  3.)  This  series  sIiotvs  tifteen  shale  seams 
with  thick  beds  of  limestone  in  the  upper  part  of  the  sec- 
tion. All  of  these  carry  some  coal  but  the  amount  in  the 
upper  members  is  so  slight  that  they  should  really  not  be 
called  coal-bearing  for  the  coal  is  not  present  in  nearly  as 
large  quantities  as  in  some  formations  of  other  systems. 
These  are  the  only  members  of  the  coal-measures  that  occur 
in  Nebraska  and  confirm  ns  in  the  belief  that  Hayden  was 
right  when  he  said,  fifty  years  ago  that,  “Nebraska  lies  on 
the  western  border  of  the  coal  basin  and  however  deep  bor- 
ings may  be  carried  along  the  Missouri  River  no  seams  of 
coal  over  two  or  two  and  one-half  feet  will  ever  be  pene- 
trated.’’ This  statement  with  one  exception  holds  good  to- 
day and  ex})i*esses  the  opinion  of  geologists  in  general. 


FORMATIONS  IN  NEBRASKA. 


Quaternary 


Tertiary. 


Cretaceous. 


Carboniferous 


(20) 

Alluvium. 

(1!>) 

Dune  sand. 

(18) 

Loess — 0 to  100  feet. 

(17) 

Drift. 

(16) 

Eqiuis  beds. 

(15) 

(14) 

Ogalalla — Pliocene 
Arikaree — 400  to  500  feet, 
Miocene. 

jLoup  Fork 
1 beds 

(13) 

Gering — 100  to  200  feet. 

(12) 

Brule — 200  to  300  feet. 

( Oligocene 

(11) 

Chadron — 100  feet. 

) Bad  Lands. 

(10) 

Laramie  ( ? ) 

( 9 ) 

Pierre — 0 to  1.0  00  feet  or  more. 

( 8 ) 

Niobrara — 2 00  to  4 00  feet. 

( 7 ) 

Carlis’e — 100  to  500  feet. 

( 6 ) 

Greenhorn — 2 0 to  3 0 feet. 

[■Benton  group. 

( 5 ) 

Graneros — 5 0 to  900  feet.. 

(?)  J 

( 4 ) 

Dakota — 300  to  400  feet. 

( 3 ) 

Morrison  (?) 

( 2 ) 

Permo-carboniferous  200  to 

300  feet. 

( 1 ) 

Pennsylvanian  coal-bearing, 

1,000  to  1,200  feet. 

Hayden  also  observed,  that  “the  beds  of  eastern  Nebraska 
pass  under  the  state  and  appear  in  the  Black  Hills  and 
Mountains  and  there  again  show  no  indications  of  coal  of  any 
thickness.” 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


279 


1 

^ C*  ^BOM/eefoui  TV^  ceoi/B 


Fig.  1.  A geological  section  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  Black  Hills. 
Modified  after  Barton. 


The  presence  of  thin  seams  of  coal  in  the  soiitliern  part  of 
the  state  has  been  observed  since  the  time  of  earliest  settle- 
ment, and  many  farmers  in  this  section  have  dug  enough 
coal  from  their  farms  to  supply  their  domestic  needs.  This 
is  however  the  extent  of  the  production  and  most  of  these 
small  mines  were  soon  abandoned  as  unprofitable. 

The  following  coal  analyses  were  made  by  the  De]^artment 
of  Chemistry,  The  University  of  Nebraska,  and  were  run 
partly  or  entirely  air-dry.  No.  1 is  from  Nemaha  Comity, 
No.  from  Cass  Comity,  No.  3 from  Otoe  Comity,  and  No.  4 
from  liichardson  County: 


No. 

Moisture 

Vol.  Comb. 
Matter 

Fixed  Carbon 

Ash 

Sulphur 

1 

4.46 

36.67 

45.26 

9.50 

4.09 

2 

13.23 

44.56 

32.04 

10.21 

3 

7.10 

20.52 

29.10 

36.46 

(i.81 

4 

7.87 

31.52 

50.36 

10.26 

• • • • 

280 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


COAL  EXCITEMENTS. 

The  following  account  of  a coal  excitement  was  reported 
by  Meek  and  Hayden  as  early  as  1867  and  records  what  was 
probably  one  of  the  first  in  this  portion  of  Nebraska: " 

‘^At  Tecumseh  a thin  bed  of  coal  has  been  opened,  and  is 
now  worked  with  some  success  by  Mr.  Beatty.  The  drift  is 
very  similar  to  that  before  described  in  my  report  of  Pawnee 
County,  and  extends  into  the  bank  about  one  hundred  yards. 
Mr.  Beatty  has  taken  out  about  a thousand  bushels  of  coal, 
which  he  sells  readily  at  the  mine  for  twenty-five  cents  per 
bushel.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  same  bed  that  is  opened  at 
Turner’s  Branch  and  at  Frieze’s  Mill,  in  Pawnee  County,  but 
is  not  quite  as  thick  or  as  good;  it  contains  large  masses  of 
sulphuret  of  iron  and  other  impurities.  The  coal  seam  here 
varies  much  in  thickness,  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches.  The  cap 
rock  is  a bed  of  limestone  not  more  than  two  or  three  feet 
in  thickness. 

A well  was  sunk  in  the  village  of  Tecumseh  sixty  feet;  a 
drill  was  driven  down  through  the  rock  and  hard  clay  a few 
feet  farther,  and  passed  through  what  the  workmen  thought 
to  be  three  feet  of  good  coal.  This  discovery  created  much  ex- 
citement at  the  time,  and  increased  the  demand  for  public 
lands  in  Johnson  County.  It  afterwards  turned  out  to  be  the 
same  seam  of  coal  worked  by  Mr.  Beatty  on  the  Nemaha,  and 
was  only  eleven  inches  in  thickness.  Tlie  prospects,  therefore^ 
for  workable  beds  of  coal  in  Johnson  County  are  no  better 
than  in  neighboring  counties  already  examined.” 

A year  seldom  passes  without  reports  of  the  discovery  of 
a ‘‘workable  bed  of  coal”  in  southeastern  Nebraska,  and  the 
organization  of  a company  to  promote  the  development  of 
the  same.  Funds  are  raised  and  drilling  operations  begun, 
or  a shaft  is  sunk,  and  in  each  of  hundreds  of  cases  the  re- 
sult is  the  same,  money  thrown  away  in  the  fruitless  search 
for  coal.  In  many  cases  the  State  Geologist  is  asked  for  his 
unbiased  opinion  as  to  the  probability  of  the  presence  of  coal 

1.  U.  S.  G.  S.  of  Nebraska  by  Meek  and  Hayden,  p.  34. 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


281 


282 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


in  some  particular  part  of  the  state,  and  in  no  case  does  his 
answer,  that  it  is  probably  not  present  in  paying  quantities, 
stop  the  coal  excited  people  from  spending  their  money. 

The  towns  that  have  had  repeated  coal  excitements  in  the 
Pennsylvanian  section  are:  Eulo,  Humboldt,  Tecumseh,  Peru, 
South  Fork,  Nebraska  City,  Falls  City,  and  Plattsmouth. 
Others  might  be  added  to  this  list  including  most  of  the 
towns  ill  the  eleven  counties  above  named. 

The  coal  that  has  been  obtained  is  of  fairly  good  burning 
quality,  but  runs  high  in  moisture  and  ash,  and  compara- 
tively low  in  fixed  carbon  for  a bituminous  coal.  Our  coal 
beds  range  from  four  to  thirty-six  inches  in  thickness,  and  in 
some  ])laces  are  found  at  a depth  of  many  feet  below  the  sur- 
face, making  it  entirely  impracticable  to  mine. 


.edge  of  this  area  the  coal  bed  varies  from  one  foot  in  thickness  to  ap- 
proximately three  feet.  In  the  western  edge  it  pinches  out  to  a few 
inches. 

The  only  coal  mine  now  being  operated  within  the  state 
is  the  Honey  Creek  Coal  Mine  at  Peru.  In  this  mine  the  coal 
is  about  thirty-three  inches  thick,  and  while  it  no  doubt  will 
prove  to  be  a profitable  working  bed  of  coal,  its  importance 
is  confined  to  a very  small  area.  Relative  to  this  mine.  Pro- 
fessor E.  H.  Barbour,  State  Geologist  for  Nebraska,  says, 
' “It  has  certainly  been  the  o])inion  of  geologists  at  large  that 

1.  Nebraska  Geolog’cal  Survey.  Vol.  II,  p.  3 5 5. 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


283 


commercial  coal  of  great  extent  was  not  to  be  expected  in 
Nebraska,  and  the  occnrrence  of  a workable  bed  in  Pern 
does  not  materially  change  this  opinion,  for  at  best  it  must 
be  local,  being  confined  to  x^erhaps  a townshij)  of  two,  as 
shown  by  the  surrounding  deep  wells.  Though  limited  to 
a square  mile  or  so  it  is  of  im])ortance  to  this  commonwealth.’’ 

H()NP.Y  CREEK  COAL  MINE. 

Discovery  and  Development. 

A coal-like  seam  had  long  been  observed  outcropping  along 
Honey  Creek,  four  miles  southeast  of  Peru,  Nebraska.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  noticed  first  by  Win.  Vandiford  some  thirty- 
eight  years  ago,  but  was  never  thought  to  be  of  sufficient 
thickness  to  warrant  mining. 

On  Febrnary  11,  1906,  while  digging  a road,  AVm.  H.  Rader 
discovered  that  this  coal  seam  thickened  as  it  extended  into 
the  hill.  ^his]iecting  that  this  was  a valuable  discovery,  Mr. 
Rader  re])orted  his  observations  to  Messrs.  George  and  Mead- 
ly,  who  had  leased  from  A.  M.  Borst  the  land  upon  which  the 
outcrop  occurred.  The  curiosity  of  these  men  being  aroused 
they  commenced  digging  and  tunneling  into  the  hillside  that 
day. 

iMay  1st,  1906,  Mr.  Medley’s  interest  was  purchased  by 
Mr.  J.  P.  Hays  and  the  work  progressed  under  the  name  of 
Hays  and  Ceorge  until  November,  1908,  when  a conpiany 
was  foi'ined  with  Mr.  J.  B.  McGrew  of  Bloomington,  Ne- 
braska, as  ])resident.  It  is  to  be  incor])orated  as  tlie  Honey 
Creek  Mining  Company,  with  a paid  np  ca])ital  of  ^15,000. 
This  company  now  o|)erates  the  mine  with  Mr.  Stephen 
Geoi-ge  in  charge. 


Location  and  Topography. 

The  Honey  (’reek  (kial  Mine  is  hx'ated  two  mih^s  south, 
and  two  miles  east  of  Pern,  in  the  N.  W.  (piarter,  of  Section 
36,  T.  ().,  R.  If)  E.,  N(‘niaha  (’onnty,  Nebraska.  (See  Fig.  4.) 

The  tunnels  No.  1 and  No.  2 (See  Fig.  7)  entei*  the  north- 
west side  of  a large  hill,  the  to])ography  of  which  ( See  Fig. 


284 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


5)  is  observed  to  be  that  of  a ridge  140  feet  high  and  2,071 
feet  long,  tapering  and  pointing  toward  the  north.  On  the 
north  and  west  of  this  hill  Honey  Creek  flows  directly  past 
the  entrance  of  the  mine  and  about  twelve  feet  below  it. 
On  the  east,  just  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  is  the  B.  & M.  E.  E. 
track  at  a level  of  ten  feet  below  that  of  the  mine,  and  about 
one  hundred  yards  east  of  the  track  is  the  Missouri  Eiver, 
into  which  Honey  Creek  empties. 


Extent  and  Quality  of  Coal. 

The  extent  of  the  coal  is  not  definitely  known  as  yet,  but 
it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  at  least  underlies  all  of 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


285 


Honey  Creek  Hill  with  approximately  the  Fame  thickness  as 
in  the  portions  now  worked  and  it  is  very  probable  that  the 
coal  will  he  found  in  adjoining  hills,  where  the  same  indi- 
cations may  now  be  observed  which  led  to  the  development 
of  Honey  Creek  Coal  Mine.  The  thickness  of  the  coal  in 
neighboring  hills  is  not  known;  it  is  not  likely  that  the  bed 
thickens,  while  it  is  probable  that  it  pinches  out  rapidly 
toward  the  south  and  west.  Drilling  should  be  done  in  these 
hills  and  the  exact  thickness  and  extent  of  the  coal  ascer- 
tained. 

Measurements  made  thronghout  the  Honey  Creek  Mine 
show  coal  varying  from  29f4  to  inches,  with  an  average 
of  32.9  inches.  The  following  measurements  were  made  by 
the  writer  in  a very  careful  manner  in  April,  1907: 


Measurement  at  No.  1 31  inches 

Measurement  at  No.  2 29f4  inches 

Measurement  at  No.  3 29%  inches 

iNFeasurement  at  No.  1.  . . 35  inches 

Measurement  at  No.  5 31%  inches 

Measurement  at  No.  6 33%  inches 

Measurement  at  No.  7 31  inches 

Measurement  at  No.  8 33%>  inches 

Measurement  at  No.  9 31V2  inches 

Measurement  at  No.  10 35%  inches 

Measurement  at  No.  11 31%  inches 


'Avei-age 32.9  inches 


Upon  visiting  the  mine  recently  the  writer  was  informed 
that  as  work  progressed  the  bed  of  coal  had  thickened  to  36 
or  38  inches,  but  being  unable  to  verify  this  statement  by 
measurements,  on  account  of  the  presence  of  water  in  the 
mine,  these  figures  cannot  be  vouched  for. 

Taking  the  tlii(‘kness  at  about  33  indues,  it  will  i^npiire 
a little  ovei-  one  scpiare  yard  to  ])rodu(*.e  a ton  of  coal.  Since 
tli(‘re  ar-e  about  218,118  square  yards  in  lloiu'v  (5‘eek  Hill,  at 
the  coal  h^vel,  there  are  about  218,000  tons  of  coal,  ])roviding 

1.  P^or  places  at  which  measurements  were  taken  see  P^'ig.  9. 


^86 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


the  thickness  of  33  inches  is  maintained  thronghont  the  hill. 
In  case  the  coal  has  now  reached  a thickness  of  38  inches, 
as  is  claimed  by  the  operators  of  the  mine,  the  hill  may  con- 
tain as  mnch  as  250,000  tons  of  coal. 

Geology  and  Stratigraphy. 

Although  the  formations  occnring  at  Pern,  Nebraska,  have 


^ca/e 


L ■ I 

_ SOO 

Fig.  5.  Topography  of  Honey  Creek  Hill,  Sec.  3 6,  T.  6,  R.  15  E. 
Peru,  Nebraska.  Datum  Plane  mean  sea  level.  Contour  interval  20 
feet.  The  two  black  bars  are  tunnels;  the  crossed  circle  an  air  shaft. 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


287 


not  been  as  carefully  traced  as  they  should  be  in  order  to 
positively  identify  them,  still,  as  the  result  of  tracing  be- 
tween Nebraska  City  and  Peru,  together  with  the  correlation 
of  these  beds  by  various  geologists  of  the  Nebraska,  Kansas, 
Iowa,  and  United  States  Geological  Surveys,  the  writer  feels 
justified  in  pronouncing  the  formation  here  as  an  upper  mem- 
ber of  the  Atchison  Shales  (Prosser’s  Waubansee).  It  is 
possible  that  the  Carboniferous  fiora  from  the  vicinity  of  Peru 
and  Nebraska  City  recently  described  by  the  writer,  and  soon 
to  be  published  by  the  State  Survey,  may,  after  its  horizon 
is  definitely  known,  change  the  i)osition  of  the  beds  as  now 
regarded. 


Fig.  6.  View  looking  east  from  Mr.  William  Rader’s  across  Honey 
Creek  Valley.  To  the  left  throiigli  the  railroad  cat  may  be  seen  the  Mis- 
souri River.  Tunnels  1 and  2 are  numbered  accordingly.  At  2 the  over- 
lying  rock  and  shale  are  about  5 0 feet  thick,  at  1 about  GO  feet,  and  at 
the  summit  of  the  hill  120  feet.  This  exi)anding  ridge  for  a mile  or  two 
to  the  south  is  known  to  be  underlaid  with  coal.  Compare  Fig.  7.  Nega- 
tive No.  2-1G-2-07.  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill’s  collection  of  geological 
photographs,  the  University  of  Nebraska. 


A s(‘(dion  of  IIon(‘V  (’r(d‘k  Hill  (See  f’igs.  7,  S)  shows  the 
coal  to  be  ov(M-laid  and  und(‘rlaid  by  a dai'k  (‘ompact  shale. 


288 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


which  weathers  rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  air.  This  latter 
property  is  cpiite  evident  in  the  mine  where  the  roofing  shale 
weathers  and  falls  to  the  floor  after  being  exposed  for  a few 
months.  It  makes,  nevertheless,  an  excellent  roofing  for  the 
mine.  This  shale  is  covered  by  an  uneven  layer  of  Loess 
varying  from  10  to  75  feet  in  thickness. 


Fig.  7.  A geologic?!  section  running  north  and  south  through  Honey 
Creek  Coal  Mine,  showing  carboniferous  overlaid  with  Drift  and  Loess. 

C — Old  railroad  cut;  H — Honey  Creek.  Tunnels  at  1 and  2. 

The  general  dip  of  these  beds  is  toward  the  southwest,  but 
is  scarcely  noticeable  in  the  small  extent  of  the  coal  area 
exposed.  There  is,  however,  a small,  rather  interesting  syn- 
cline present,  which  is  plainly  evident  thronghont  the  mine 
as  far  as  now  worked.  The  trough  of  this  syncline  crosses 
tunnel  Xo.  2 about  50  feet  from  the  entrance,  running  in  a 
north  and  west  direction.  The  seepage  water  from  the  mine 
runs  into  this  syncline  making  what  the  miners  term  a “water 
course”  by  means  of  which  the  water  is  carried  to  a“sunk”' 
(See  letter  S Fig.  9)  where  the  water  is  about  four  feet  deep,, 
and  from  which  place  it  is  drawn  out  of  the  mine  by  means- 


t 

Fig.  8.  Sectional  view  at  Honey  Creek  Coal  :\Iine,  tunnel  No.  2,  show- 
ing room  and  pillar  method  of  mining,  t,  tunnel  No.  2;  r,  roofiing  shale; 
c,  coal  bed  with  a maximum  thickness  of  3 5 to  36  inches,  a minimum  of 
29  inches  and  an  average  of  32.9,  or  33  inches  in  round  numbers. 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


281^ 


of  a syplion,  which  drains  into  Honey  Creek. 

Method  of  "Working. 

When  operation  was  begun  on  the  mine  two  tunnels  were 
dug  extending  about  150  feet  into  the  hill,  where  the  miners 
started  to  remove  the  coal  on  the  xhan  of  the  room-and-pillar 
system.  This  is  done  by  working  the  coal  from  either  side 
of  the  tunnel  in  long  rooms,  leaving  a wall  or  pillar  of  coal 
some  six  feet  wide  on  each  side  of  the  tunnel  to  support  the 
roof,  some  timbering  also  being  done.  During  the  past  year 
this  system  of  mining  was  replaced  by  the  long-wall  method, 
in  which  all  of  the  coal  is  removed,  advancing  the  face  in  all 
directions  at  the  same  time  in  the  form  of  a circle  about  the 
tunnel.  As  the  face  is  advanced  the  roof  is  su])])orted  by 
timbers  placed  along  the  entries,  (Fig.  10)  and  the  waste 
shale  is  ])acked  against  these  props  forming  what  is  known 
as  the  “gob”  or  “packed  wall.”  The  weight  of  the  over- 
lying  strata  must  be  borne  by  this  “gob”  and  by  the  time 
the  roof  has  settled  to  a permanent  position,  it  has  com- 
pressed the  material  in  the  “gob”  from  36  inches  to  18  inches 
in  thickness,  having  settled  one  half  of  the  distance  for- 
merly occupied  by  the  coal,  under  the  immense  weight  of 
the  overlying  shale  and  Loess. 

The  coal  is  removed  by  hand,  with  the  aid  of  picks  and 
levers,  and  is  transported  from  the  mine  by  means  of  jiush- 
cars,  which  run  on  light  rail  tracks,  to  the  dump,  where  it 
is  em])tied  on  the  storage  pile,  or  loaded  into  wagons  to  be 
hauled  to  town  or  to  the  freight  cars,  which  are  close  at 
hand.(  Fig.  11). 

AVlien  first  ojierated  the  mine  was  ventilated  in  a very  crude 
mannei',  l)iit  an  air  shaft  has  now  been  sunk  tlii'ougli  40  feet 
of  Loess  and  sliale,  into  the  face  of  tunnel  No.  2 at  tlie  ])oint 
marked  by  a crossed  circle  (See  Fig.  5)  and  by  means  of  this 
outlet  (piite  an  air  current  is  produced  and  |)roi)er  ventilation 
insured. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Properties. 

The  Peru  coal  is  what  would  be  classed  as  a fair  or  medium 


290 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


grade  of  bitimiinoiis  coal.  It  does  not  come  up  to  the  standard 
of  the  average  Iowa  or  Kansas  coal  but  is  as  good  in  quality 
as  some  coal  mined  in  those  states. 

It  is  hard  and  com])act  when  first  mined  but  soon  slacks, 
crumbling  to  small  pieces  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  for 
this  reason,  a poor  coal  for  shipping  or  storing,  and  is  best 
adapted  for  immediate  boiler  or  domestic  use. 


Fig.  9.  Ground  plan  of  the  Honey  Creek  Coal  Mine.  The  numbers 
show  where  measurements  weie  made  see  page  285,  letters,  where  coal 
samples  were  taken  for  analysis,  see  page  292.  S.  eauals  “sunk”;  the 
cross  circle  near  5 indicates  the  position  of  the  air  shaft. 

It  has  a specific  gravity  of  1.28,  burns  well,  giving  a good 
amount  of  heat  and  leaving  a soft,  red  ash  of  rather  large 
amount  for  a bitnminons  coal. 

The  first  chemical  analyses  of  the  Peru  coal  were  made  in 
1906  by  L.  J.  Pepper  berg,  then  a Fellow  in  the  Department 
of  Geology.  The  record  of  these  analyses  is  given  below:  the 
first  of  the  three  samples  is  air-dried,  the  second  water- 
soaked  as  mined,  and  the  third  is  lignitic  coal  from  Cumber- 
land, Wyoming,  for  com])arison: 


Coke 

Volfitile  Fixed  B.  T.  U per  Volatile  Fixed  C. 


No. 

Moisture 

Matter 

Carbon 

Ash 

Total 

Lbs  Coal 

Matter 
]’(•  (Min  b. 

pc.  of 
Comb. 

1 

10  . 

4 5.25 

36.28 

8 .47 

100 

12,621 

5 5.50 

44 . 50 

2 

32 . 22 

28.54 

19.38 

19.86 

100 

7,492 

54  . 80 

45.20 

3 

3.65 

44  . 27 

46 .18 

5 . 90 

100 

14,100 

54  . 90 

45.10 

These  sam])les  were  taken  from  near  the  snrfa(*e  and  repre- 
sent weathered  coal,  which  ex})lains  the  high  per  cent  of  mois- 
ture and  ash.  They  are  placed  beside  a Cumberland,  Wyom- 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


291 


l^ig.  10.  Honey  Creek  Coal  Mine,  tunnel  No.  2,  showing  method  of 
timbering,  eoal  car,  track,  und  three  minei's.  Negative  No.  10-10-2-07. 
Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill’s  collection  of  geological  photographs. 


292 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


ing,  coal  for  comparison,  the  volatile  combustible  matter  be- 
ing practically  the  same  per  cent  of  the  total  combustibles 
in  the  two  coals. 

In  Aiiril,  1907,  eleven  samples  were  taken  from  various 
points  thronghont  the  mine  (Fig.  9,  A to  K inclusive)  and 
have  since  been  analyzed  by  the  writer,  in  the  laboratory 
of  the  Department  of  Chemistry,  where  laboratory  privileges 
were  freely  extended  to  him  while  engaged  in  this  work. 


The  following  are  analyses  rnn  “mine-wet”  according  to 
the  method  approved  by  the  re})ort  of  the  Committee  in  the 


American 

Clieiiiic 

al  Society  Journal  A 

Volatile 

Fixed 

Volatile 

No.  Moisture 

Comb. 

Matter 

Fixed 

Carbuti 

Ash 

Carbon 
pc  comb. 

Matter  Sulphur 
pc.  comb. 

1 

22 . 5 

35 . 2 

31  . 6 

10.7 

47.3 

5 2.7 

2 

23.3 

3 5.5 

31  . 9 

9.3 

47 . 4 

52 . 6 

3 

22 . 1 

33  . 8 

32.2 

11.9 

48 . 8 

51.2 

4 

23.5 

32.3 

30 . 9 

13.3 

48 . 8 

51  . 2 

5 

25 . 2 

29 . 8 

37  . 4 

7 . 6 

55.7 

44 . 3 

6 

25 . 7 

32.0 

33  . 5 

8 . 8 

51.1 

48 . 9 

7 

25.9 

30 . 6 

35.0 

8 . 4 

53 . 3 

46 . 7 

8 

26 . 3 

32 . 3 

34.1 

7 . ‘I 

51.4 

48 . 6 

9 

25 . 1 

30 . 5 

34  . 1 

10.3 

52 . 8 

47  . 2 

10 

26 . 4 

36.0 

29 . 9 

7 . 7 

4 5.8 

54 . 2 

11 

40 . 2 

25 . 5 

23.3 

11.0 

47  . 7 

52 . 3 

Av.  1-9 

Z-i  . 4 

32 . 4 

33 . 4 

9.7 

50.7 

49.3  6.22 

12 

13.42 

39  . 83 

3 9.29 

9 .46 

13 

26.84 

32.14 

34.19 

6 . 83 

14 

28 . 47 

28 . 63 

35 .32 

7.58 

Samples  Xos.  12,  13,  and  14  are  included  for  comparison, 
ttie  first  of  these  being  from  Blacksmith,  Kansas,  the  other 
two  from  snb-bitnminons  coal  of  Montana. 

The  above  samples  show  a decided  improvement  over  the 
samples  taken  in  1906,  with  a marked  decrease  in  the  i)er 
cent  of  moisture  and  ash  and  a corresponding  increase  in  the 
per  cent  of  volatile  combustible  matter  and  fixed  carbon.  The 
per  cent  of  fixed  carbon  in  the  coal  has  shown  a decided  in- 

1.  Volume  21,  p.  1116-32. 

2.  The  physical  quality  of  the  above  coal  is  such  that  appreciable 
quantities  of  carbon  were  carried  off  when  the  fine  powder  was  burned, 
making  the  per  cent  of  fixed  carbon  low. 


COAL.  IN  NEBRASKA 


Fig.  11.  The  Honey  Creek  Coal  Mine,  entrance  to  tunnel  No.  2.  One  of  the  proprietors,  Mr. 
Hayes,  stands  at  the  right,  the  other,  Mr.  George,  to  the  left.  A group  of  miners  stand  at  the 
entrance.  To  the  right  and  left  is  a streak  of  weathered  coal,  which  leads  to  a 33-inch  bed  near 
the  entrance.  Negative  No.  8-16-2-07.  Hon  Charles  Morrill’s  collection  of  geological  photographs, 
the  University  of  Nebraska. 


294 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


crease  and  this  is  the  most  important  factor  in  determining^ 
the  value  of  a coal. 

xVs  stated  above  the  coal  shows  much  improvement  on 
going  further  back  into  the  mine,  but  after  entering  some  dis- 
tance the  ditference  as  shown  by  analyses  is  slight  and  is  pure- 
ly local,  indicating  no  probable  change  in  the  coal  throughout 
the  hill  from  that  now  obtained,  at  least  in  so  far  as  chemical 
]u*operties  are  concerned.  Physically  the  coal  has  a better 
color,  luster,  and  is  harder  than  the  coal  first  mined. 

Value 

The  value  of  any  coal  depends  essentially  upon  its: 

1.  Chemical  contents. 

2.  Cost  of  working. 

3.  Relation  to  market. 

4.  Coking  ])i*operties. 

5.  Surrounding  formations  with  reference  to  the 
possible  production  of  brick,  lime,  cement, etc. 

1.  The  chemical  contents  of  the  Peru  coal  have  been  suf- 
ficiently discussed  above. 

2.  The  cost  of  working  is  a very  important  question  in  any 
mine,  and  under  this  heading  many  things  might  be  suggested 
which  affect  the  cost  of  mining  coal.  It  is  sufficient  at  this 
time  merely  to  say  that  at  the  Honey  Creek  Mine  labor  is  not 
high;  the  coal  having  parting  planes  is  not  hard  to  work; 
the  seepage  water  and  ventilation  are  easily  taken  care  of; 
wood  is  at  hand  to  supply  such  timbering  as  is  necessary;  and 
no  shafts  have  to  be  sunk,  so  the  coal  is  taken  out  on  the  level 
of  the  mine  without  much  labor  or  ex])ense.  However,  it 
should  be  added  that  the  thickness  of  the  coal  is  not  gveat 
enough  but  that  the  working-cost  ])er  ton  will  always  run 
high,  and  especially  so  since  it  is  mined  by  hand. 

3.  The  relation  of  coal  to  market  demands  is  self-evident,, 
and  the  conditions  at  Peru  are  quite  favorable.  Since  it  is 
not  a good  shipping  coal,  the  importance  of  immediate  con- 
sumption becomes  greater. 

The  Honey  Creek  Coal  Mine  has  furnished  most  of  the  coal 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


295 


used  by  tlie  town  of  Peru  and  the  State  Normal  School  sit- 
uated there,  for  the  past  two  years,  and  carload  shipments 
have  been  made  to  Auburn,  Brownville,  Nemaha  City,  Orleans, 
and  Eepnblican  City. 

4.  The  Honey  Creek  coal  is  not  a good  coking  coal. 

5.  The  overlying  and  underlying  shales  suggest  the  manu- 
facture of  brick  and  various  clay  wares,  and  the  burning  of 
“gumbo”  for  railroad  ballast. 

The  writer  has  seen  no  limestone  in  the  vicinity,  which 
might  prove  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement 
and  which  might  add  to  the  immediate  uses  and  consequently 
increase  the  value  of  the  coal. 

The  actual  value  of  the  Honey  Creek  coal  on  the  market 
is  $3.50  per  ton  at  the  mine.  Thus  taking  the  figures  as  given 
above,  namely  that  a 33  inch  bed  thronghont  the  hill  con- 
tains about  218,000  tons,  a value  of  $763,000.00  may  be  set 
on  the  Honey  Creek  coal,  or  in  case  the  bed  thickens  so  as 
to  contain  250,000  tons,  the  value  would  be  about  $875,000.00. 
These  estimates  are  necessarily  but  approximations. 

According  to  the  terms  of  the  original  lease  a royalt}^  of 
fifty  cents  per  ton  was  paid  to  the  lessor  on  all  coal  selling 
for  three  dollars  a ton,  and  one  dollar  for  coal  selling  for 
four  dollars.  The  royalty  has  now  been  reduced  from  fifty 
to  twenty-five  cents  per  ton,  so  that  when  the  entire  hill  is 
worked,  if  the  above  figures  ai‘e  correct  and  the  present  roy- 
alty n aintained,  the  lessor  will  have  received  lietween  $54,- 
500.00  and  $62,500.00  as  royalty  from  the  coal  removed. 
Output. 

The  output  of  the  Honey  Creek  Ccal  Mine  u])  to  date  is  as 
follows: 


Feb.  11,  1906,  to  Aug.  31,  1906  A])prox 75  T $ 262.00 

September,  1906,  coal  marketed 20  T 70.00 

October,  1906,  coal  marketed 25  T 87.00 

Novembei’,  1 906,  coal  marketed 50  T 175.00 

December,  1906,  coal  marketed 70  T 245.00 


Total  for  1906 200  T $ 839.00 


■296 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Jainiary,  1907,  coal  marketed 85  T $298.00 

Pebriiary  1 to  15,  1907,  coal  marketed 75  T 262.00 

February  15  to  28,  1907,  coal  marketed.  . . .114  T 399.00 

September,  1907,  coal  marketed 63  T 220.00 

October,  1907,  coal  marketed 96  T 336.00 

November,  1907,  coal  marketed 138  T 483.00 

December,  1907,  coal  marketed 75  T 262.00 


Total  for  1907 646  T $2,260 . 00 

January,  1908,  coal  marketed 43  T 150.50 

February,  1908,  coal  marketed 38  T 133.00 

Marcli,  i008,  coal  marketed 60  T 210.00 

Closed  on  account  of  Ore  and  subsequent 
flooding  until  Nov.  1908. 

December,  1908,  coal  marketed 20  T 70.00 


Total  for  1908 161  T $563.50 

January,  1909,  coal  marketed 30  T 105.00 

February,  1909,  coal  mai*keted 30  T 105.00 


Owing  to  a series  of  tires  and  cave-ins  tun- 
nels No.  1 and  No.  2 have  been  abandoned 
for  several  months,  but  a new  tunnel  is 
under  construction. 

September,  1909,  coal  marketed 9 T 38.25 

October,  1909,  coal  marketed 32  T 136.00 


Total  for  1909 Ill  T $ 384.25 

Grand  total  1,118  T $4,046.75 

A new  company  has  been  formed  and  mining  operations 
are  to  be  resumed  in  the  summer  or  fall  of  1910. 


Dakota  Formation. 

The  outcrops  of  this  formation  are  shown  by  Figures  1, 
and  2 to  occur  in  Jefferson,  Gage,  Lancaster,  Cass,  Saunders, 
Sarpy,  Douglas,  Dodge,  Washington,  Burt,  Thurston  and  Da- 
kota counties.  The  formation  is  between  three  hundred  and 
four  hundred  feet  thick  and  like  all  other  formations  here 
discussed  extends  under  the  entire  state  west  of  the  line  of 
outcrop.  (Fig.  2.) 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


29T 


Thin  seams  of  lignite  occur  in  the  Dakota  and  have  caused 
nearly  as  much  excitement  and  loss  of  money  as  the  coal 
seams  in  the  Pennsylvanian.  It  has  been  worked  somewhat 
at  Ponca,  Dixon  County;  (possibly  Graneros,  com])are  page 
293)  ^"alparaiso,  Saunders  County;  Homer,  Dakota  County,, 
and  has  been  reached  l)y  drilling  at  two  levels  at  Jackson,  Da- 
kota County;  in  C^edar  County;  at  Jamestown,  Dodge  County;, 
and  along  the  Big  Bine  liiver  near  Milford  and  Crete.  The  lig- 
nite at  these  |)laces  varies  from  six  inches  to  two  feet  in  thick- 
ness and  is  only  of  fair  grade,  running  high  in  moisture  and 
ash  and  weathering  ra])idly  on  ex])osnre  to  the  air.  Pour 
analyses  of  Dakota  County-coal  by  E.  P.  Burchard  occur  below. 
Samples  No.  1 and  No.  2 and  No.  3 were  obtained  by  drilling 
three  miles  north  of  Jackson  and  were  air-dried;  sample  No. 
4 is  from  Homer,  partly  air-dried: 


No. 

Moisture 

Vol.  Matter 

Fixed  carbon 

Ash 

Sulphur 

Total 

1 

4 . 99 

41 . 63 

27  . 14 

25.72 

1.22 

100.70 

2 

4.03 

51.40 

33.66 

10 .91 

. • . • 

100.00 

3 

6.50 

28.00 

49 . 30 

16 . 20 

100 . 00 

4 

17.85 

44.27 

26.00 

10.91 

1 . 14 

100 .17 

The  largest  production  of  this  coal  in  one  year  was  in  1897 
when  550  tons  were  mined  in  Dixon  County,  selling  for  $1,- 
500.00. 

As  to  working  these  lignite  beds.  Professor  J.  E.  Todd,  act- 
ing as  State  Geologist  for  South  Dakota'  said,  “In  my 
judgment  it  is  alisolntely  useless  for  peo])le  to  spend  money 
in  southeastern  South  Dakota,  southwestern  Minnesota,  north- 
western Iowa,  or  northeastern  Nebraska  for  the  ])ur])ose  of 
hunting  for  coal  or  in  the  work  of  develojiing  su(*h  isolated 
finds  as  occasionally  may  be  struck;  because  there  isn’t  any 
large  body  of  coal,  lignite  or  otherwise  and  if  thei*e  were  such 
deposits  they  could  not  be  worked  owing  to  the  absence  of  a 
substantial  covering  and  the  presence  of  overwhelming  sub- 
terrau(‘an  floods  of  water.” 

A b(*d  of  lignit(*  s(‘ven  iii(‘li(‘s  thi('k  (possibly  (ii'an(‘i-os,)  was 
W()rk(‘d  in  1903  at  Pow(*ll,  Jefferson  County,  along  the 

1.  Newspaper  clipping,  Department  of  Geology.  (Date  and  name  ol 
paper  unknown). 


■29S 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Little  Blue  Eiver,  and  thin  beds  i'iinilar  to  this  one  may  be 
found  throug’hont  the  Dakota  region.  Lignite  beds  are  worked 
in  Jewel  County,  Kansas,  and  there  is  a possibility  that  the 
same  beds  may  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Superior,  Nebraska, 
of  sufficient  thickness  to  work  profitably  if  not  found  too 
deeply  covered  with  later  deposits. 

Graneros  Formation. 

The  oiitcro})  of  the  Graneros  is  poorly  defined,  but  occu- 
pies a narrow  strip  (Fig.  2)  extending  through  Thayer,  Jef- 
ferson, Saline,  Seward,  Lancaster,  Saunders,  Dodge,  Burt, 
Tlmrston,  Dakota,  and  Dixon  C’ounties.  It  varies  from  foidy  to 
sixty  feet  in  thickness  in  eastern  Nebraska  and  is  800  or  900 
feet  thick  in  the  Black  Hills. 

Idle  only  coal  in  this  formation  is  found  near  its  base  and 
has  been  vrorked  at  Ponca,  Dixon  County.  These  are  the 
same  seams  s])oken  of  in  the  Dakota  formation  and  there  is 
u difference  of  opinion  as  to  which  of  these  formations  the 
coal  belongs.  It  makes  little  difference,  however,  excei)t  from 
a scientific  standpoint. 

Throughout  various  parts  of  this  region  dark  colored  shales 
are  found  at  the  base  of  the  Graneros  and  are  invariably  taken 
for  coal  or  indications  of  coal,  liy  the  well  diggers  and  drillers 
and  property  owners.  No  important  beds  of  coal  are  to  be 
expected  in  this  formation,  and  at  such  places  where  pros- 
pecting has  been  extensively  done,  as  in  Dixon  and  Jefferson 
Counties,  it  has  been  entirely  without  success. 

Near  Jtubbel,  Thayer  County,  occurs  a dark  carbonaceous 
shale,  seven  feet  thick,  which  has  been  mistaken  for  coal  many 
times  and  has  caused  much  excitement  in  that  vicinity.  It 
will  not  Imrn  nor  is  it  even  an  indication  that  coal  is  present, 
and  i^eojJe  living  in  this  section  should  become  familiar  with 
this  shale  so  as  to  avoid  such  expensive  mistakes  in  the  future 
as  have  been  made  during  ])ast  years. 

Pierre  Shale  Formation. 

The  Pierre  Shale  overlies  the  Niobrara  and  outcro])s  south 
of  the  Missouri  Eiver  in  Knox  and  Cedar  Counties,  along  the 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


299 


Niobrara  River  in  Holt,  Boyd,  Rock,  and  JR'own  CV)iinties, 
along  the  Republican  \"alley  from  Re])nblican  City  to  Ara])a- 
lioe  and  from  McCook  to  the  Colorado  line  and  along  Pine 
Ridge  in  the  northern  ])art  of  Sheridan,  Dawes  and  Sionx 
counties  west  of  the  Wyoming  line.  Fi'oni  east  to  west  it 
increases  in  thickness  ii])  to  two  or  three  thousand  feet 
or  more.  (Pig.  1). 

As  ex])osed  along  the  Afissonri  River  between  Chamberlain, 
South  Dakota,  and  Cedar  C\)imty,  Neln'aska'  and  along 
the  Re])nblican  River  betweei:  Republican  (dty  and  Oxford, 
the  base  of  tliis  formation  contains  a ^‘-n*bonaceons  streak 
10  to  30  feet  thick  which  stands  out  in  strong  contrast  to 
the  nnderlyiim-  Niobrara  clialk-rock  and  like  the  dark-colored 
shale  in  the  Graneros,  has  often  been  ])ros])ected  for  coal.  Near 
Orleans,  Harlan  County,  much  ])rospecting  is  done  in  this 
shale,  the  farmers  thinking  that  as  they  dig  l)ack  into  the 
hillside  the  shale  will  be  veidaced  by  coal.  This  is  not  the 
case,  however,  and  i)ros])ecting  here  is  absolutely  useless. 

Laramie  Formation. 

The  Laramie,  a coal-bearing  formation  of  (^olorado  and 
AVyoming,  overlies  the  Pierre  shale  foimation  and  is  the  top 
member  of  the  cx])osed  Ch-etaceons  in  Nelnasfra.  It  is  tlionght 
to  underlie  a i)a,rt  of  Banner,  Kimball  and  the  sonthern  part 
of  nieycnne  Counties.  3die  only  ontcro])  known  in  Neliraska 
is  in  S('otts  Bln  ft  (V)nnty,'  neai*  the  Wyoming  line,  ft  is 
bai'ely  ])ossible  that  Laramie  (‘oal  may  extend  into  westeiri 
Nebi-aska.  It  almost  snri'onnds  westeiri  Nebraska,  for  it  out- 
crops extensively  in  North  Dakota,  Afontana,  Wyoming,  and 
Colorado,  in  whi(‘h  states  it  (rirries  considerable  amounts  of 
coal. 

33ie  Laramie  ('oal  is  a lignite  and  (xrrirs  near  the  base  of 
the  formation  in  several  beds,  four  to  fourteen  feet  thi(‘k  in 
all,  and  can  lx*  workexl  prohtably  wlu‘r(‘  it  (xxnrs  at  the 
surface*,  but  as  the*  einterrip  is  feilleiwed  bae-k  it  eli])s  to  such 
a grent  ele*pth  that  it  enimot  be;  weirkeel  to  aelvantage. 

1.  Traced  l)y  Dr.  O.  E.  Coiidra. 

2.  Kei)orted  by  C.  A.  Fisher. 


300 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Conclusion. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  Nebraska  lies  on  the  Tvest- 
ern  border  of  the  Carboniferous  coal  basin  and  on  the  eastern 
border  of  the  Cretaceous  field,  and  while  thin  beds  of  coal 
occur  in  these  formations,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  much 
coal  will  ever  be  found  in  this  State. 

Fruitless  prospecting’  has  already  shown  this  to  be  true 
in  the  Pennsylvanian  region  of  the  southeastern  counties  as 
stated  above.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Dakota  area,  and  it 
should  be  em|)hasized  that  if  thick  beds  of  coal  were  present, 
which  is  probably  not  the  case,  but  at  some  distance  below  the 
surface,  the  presence  of  seepage  water  and  of  artesian  water 
would  make  it  impracticable  to  mine  the  coal. 

AVe  should  even  discourage  prospecting  for  coal  in  all  Cre- 
taceous  formations  except  the  Laramie,  in  which  it  is  possible, 
though  not  probable,  that  workable  beds  of  coal  will  be  found. 

In  short  then,  however  much  it  is  desired,  hoped,  and  be- 
lieved that  beds  of  coal  occur  in  Nebraska  in  sufficient  thick- 
ness to  su|)])ly  the  needs  of  this  commonwealth,  from  present 
knowledge  they  probably  do  not  exist. 

COAL  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Coal  is  by  far  the  most  important  mineral  product  of  the 
world.  It  is  the  only  fuel  used  universally,  and  is  the  one  of 
greatest  commercial  importance. 

The  value  of  the  leading  mineral  products  of  the  United 
States  for  1907,  were: " 

Coal $614,798,898 

Iron  529,958,000 

Clay  products  158,942,369 

Copper  173,799,300 

Oil  and  gas  174,329,148 

Cold  and  silver 127,735,400 

The  above  table  shows  coal  to  be  of  greater  commercial 
value  in  the  United  States  than  gold,  silver,  co])per,  oil 
and  gas  combined.  This  is  not  true,  however,  in  all  countries. 


1.  U.  S.  G.  S.  “Mineral  Resources.’’  1907. 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


301 


for  the  United  States  is  the  leading  nation  in  the  production 
of  coal.  In  1907  the  four  leading  nations  were: 

United  States,  producing 480,363,424  short  tons 

Great  Britain,  producing 299,970,677  short  tons 

Germany,  producing 226,773,605  short  tons 

Austria-Hungary,  producing 43,955,315  short  tons 

The  other  nations  follow  with  much  smaller  iiroductions, 
the  output  of  the  United  States  being  39.70  i)er  cent  of  the 
entire  output  of  the  world. 

The  increase  in  the  consumption  of  coal  has  been  astonish- 
ingly rapid.  In  the  United  States  the  consumption  has  in- 
creased over  three-fold  in  the  iiast  twenty  3"ears,  and  nearly 
seven-fold  in  the  past  thirty  years. 

Mr.  M.  R.  Campbell  (United  States  Geological  Survey)  has 
estimated ' that  at  the  ]U’esent  rate  of  consuni])tion  the  coal 
reserves  of  the  United  States  will  last  approximately  four 
thousand  years,  ‘‘but  if  the  constantly  increasing  rate,  which 
has  marked  the  consumption  during  the  past  ninety  years, 
be  maintained,  our  coal  will  practically  be  exhausted  within 
one  hundred  years. 

Figure  12  shows  the  output  of  coal  in  1906  in  the  leading 
coal  producing  states  of  the  United  States  together  with  the 
approximate  number  of  square  miles  of  coal  in  the  state. 

Distribution. 

Figure  13  shows  the  distribution  of  (‘oal  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  five  principal  regions,  as  follows  in  the 
oi'der  of  their  iniportan(‘(‘: " 

APPROXIMATE  AREA  OP  AMERICAN  COAL. 


megion 

Area  in 
Sq.  Mi. 

Production  in  1906 

Pc.  of 
total 
Bitm’s 

' Appalachian  . 

. 70,807 

2 3 3,473,524  short  tons 

68 . 1 

Central  

. 58,000 

5 9,457,660  short  tons 

17.34 

Carboniferous 

coal 

Western  . . . . 

. 94,076 

23,086,348  short  tons 

6.73 

Michigan  . . . 

. 11,000 

. Rhode  Island 

500 

Cretaceous  \ 

Rocky  Mts. . . . 

. 100,000 

22,064,003  short  tons 

6 .44 

coal  1 

' Pacific  Coast. 

. 1,050 

3,386,745  short  tons 

1.  National  Geographical  Magazine,  Feb.,  1907,  p.  138. 

2.  U.  S.  G.  C.  “Mineral  Resources,’’  1 906,  p.  f)86. 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


30  2 


/,  2 a 0,000  ST 


OOO  S T 


t1or7ta/7a 

■f7,£OOSfm>  /,S-^3,aOO  S'. 

Texas  p 

■9/,  SCO  5^  / 

I////70/5 

3S,eoO  S^./T7/. 

A/.JOaAofo  wm 

3S,  SOo  Sf. 

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Z3,  OOO  5^./77/ 

IO/X07 

Z O,  OOO  777/.  7 S 7,  OOO  S T 

Kaasas  — 

20,000  Sf  m/  OOO  S : 

Wyo/77//7a 

■'  /S,  909  S 

W.T//yj/7/a 

/7^oo  sy.  m 

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A/eyvT7e//co 

/3,  SCO  Sty  mi 

O^ye? 

/Z,  660  S^./77/ 

Co/orac/o 

//,  600  Sy/77. 


SB,  ■‘7  3-^,  COO  S ' 


sy  /77/. 


S,  60^,  OOO  S' 


3 7.  79£.  OOO  S.T 


e,  ^33,  OOO  sr 


Z 9Z3i,OOiO  S T 


7 7,  660,  OOO  S.  r 


V3,-9/'¥-OOOS^ 


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ZS,SS-3,  OOO  ST 


a.  eze,  ooo  s.  t 


Fig.  12.  Coal  areas  and  output  by  states,  1906.  Black  lines  equal 
area  of  coal  fields.  White  space,  followed  by  figures,  show  the  short 
tons  (S.  T. ) mined.  The  lined  area  of  Pennsylvania,  equals  anthracite. 
Modified  after  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


Kinds  of  Coal. 

Coal  may  be  classified  in  two  different  ways,  as  to  its  purity 
and  as  to  the  amount  of  fixed  carbon  it  contains. 

Under  the  first  classification  we  have: 

1.  Pure  Coal — low  in  ash. 

2.  Poor  coal — high  in  ash. 

3.  Shaly  coal — very  high  in  ash. 

4.  Cbaly  shale — not  much  coal. 

5.  Black  or  carbonaceous  shale — jnst  enough  coal  ta 

give  it  a black  color. 

Under  the  second  classification  comes  a series  of  coals  which 
are  considered  as  different  stages  in  the  evolution  of  coal  from 
vegetable  matter  by  the  processes  of  time,  pressure  and  the 
loss  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


a0  3 


STA(]p]S  IX  TIIP]  COAL  8EHIES. 


1.  Peat. 

2.  Lignite. 

3.  Paib-bitnminons. 

4.  Semi-bitnminoiis. 

5.  Bituminous. 

6.  Semi-anthracite. 

7.  Anthracite. 

8.  Gra])liitic-anthracite. 

9.  Graphite. 

The  princi})al  ditYerence  in  these  coals  is  the  varying  pro- 
portion of: 

1.  Phxed  carbon. 

2.  AAlatile  combustible  matter. 

3.  Ash. 

Which  together  with  the  moisture  and  sulphur  present^ 
total  100  per  cent  in  any  coal. 


2C4 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOCxICAL  SURVEY 


o 


Fig.  13.  A coal  maj)  of  the  United  States.  The  coal  cast  of  Nebraska  is  of  Carboniferous  age;  west 
of  Nebraska  the  coal  is  of  Cretaceous  age.  A,  Ai)i)alachian  coal  field;  C,  Central  coal  field;  W,  Western 
coal  field;  M,  Michigan  coal  fiel  d;  Rhode  Island  coal  field.  Ruled  area,  lignite.  Modified  after  maps 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


30» 


LAW  RELATING  TO  A BOUNTY  FOR  THE  DISCOVERY 

OF  COAL. 

(Chapter  58,  Compiled  Statutes  of  Nebraska,  for  1905.) 

Section  1.  (Award  for  discovery  of  coal  or  iron.)  That 
when  it  shall  be  made  apparent  to  the  Governor  of  Nebraska,, 
by  affidavit  or  otherwise,  by  the  owner  or  owners  thereof,  that 
a vein  of  coal  not  less  than  twenty-six  inches  in  thickness  and 
of  sufficient  capacity  to  pay  to  mine,  and  within  such  distance 
from  the  surface  that  it  can  be  worked  by  modern  methods, 
has  been  discovered,  or  vein  or  veins  of  good  iron  ore  eighteen 
indies  thick,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Governor  to  appoint 
a suitable  person  to  examine  the  same,  whose  duty  it  shall 
be  to  report  the  jirobable  extent  and  ca])acity  of  the  vein  or 
veins,  all  expense  for  said  examination  to  be  paid  by  the  owner 
or  owners  of  said  mine.  Said  report  being  satisfactory  to  the 
Governor,  he  shall  direct  the  Auditor  to  draw  an  order  on 
the  Treasurer  for  the  sum  of  four  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid 
to  the  owner  or  owners  of  said  mine  of  coal,  and  of  two  thou- 
sand dollars,  to  be  paid  for  a vein  of  iron  ore  eighteen  inches- 
thick.  If  the  vein  of  coal  discovered  should  be  three  feet 
thick  and  of  a reipiired  cajiacity,  the  sum  to  be  paid  shall  be 
five  thousand  dollars.  Said  orders  to  be  paid  out  of  the  gen- 
eral fund  of  the  State  treasury  as  before  provided. 

Section  4.  (S])ecimen  of  strata  preserved.)  It  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  persons  pros])ecting  for  coal,  iron  ore,  crude  oil, 
and  gas,  carefully  to  preserve  s])ecimens  from  each  stratum 
through  which  the  shafts  are  sunk,  or  borings  made,  and  if 
the  bonus  is  obtained  upon  the  conditions  heretofore  men- 
tioned in  tliis  bill,  to  de])osit  the  same  pro])ei‘ly  labeled,  in 
care  of  the  de])artment  of  the  state  for  the  future  use  of  the 
commonwealth. 

Section  5.  (Extent  of  Act.)  The  ])rovisions  of  this  Act 
shall  not  ap))ly  to  any  vchns  of  (‘oal  oi*  ii'on  ore  already  discov- 
ei-ed,  nor  to  any  oil  wells  oi-  gas  wells  ali'cady  i)roducing,  nor 
shall  the  ])rovisions  of  this  i\(*t  ap))ly  to  the  dis(*overy  of  the 
sam(‘  v(‘in  of  coal  or  ii'on  oi‘(‘,  oi-  oil  ])0()1  or  gas  field  already 


•306 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


•discovered,  nor  shall  any  award  siiecified  under  the  terms  of 
this  Act  be  paid  for  a second  discovery  of  the  same  veins, 
pools,  or  fields  within  the  limit  of  the  same  comity. 

Section  6.  (Appropriations.)  There  shall  be  appropriated 
ont  of  the  funds  of  the  State  Treasury  for  the  purpose  of  this 
Act,  not  already  appropriated,  the  sum  of  twenty-five  thou- 
sand dollars. 

The  appropriation  carried  with  the  above  having  lapsed, 
the  following-  bill  was  introduced  into  the  thirtieth  session 
of  the  Nebraska  Legislature  to  cover  the  Pern  coal  discovery: 

House  Roll  No.  345— A Bill. 

For  an  act  to  appropriate  the  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars 
($10,000)  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the  opening  and 
development  of  coal  and  other  minerals  in  the  State  of  Ne- 
braska, and  to  provide  for  the  expenditure  thereof  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  section  7350,  Cobbey’s  An- 
notated Statutes  of  Nebraska. 

INTPonrCED  BY  AY.  D.  REDMOND. 

Introduced  and  read  the  first  time  Feb.  14,  1907.  Read  the 
second  time  Feb.  15,  1907,  and  referred  to  the  Committee  on 
Finance,  5Yays  and  Means. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  Nebraska: 
Section  1.  That  the  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars  ($10,000) 
or  so  mncli  thereof  as  may  be  necessary  be  and  the  same  is 
hereby  appropriated  ont  of  any  money  in  the  general  fund 
of  the  State  not  otherwise  appropriated  for  the  purpose  of 
encouraging  the  opening  and  development  of  coal  and  other 
mineral  interests  in  the  State  of  Nebraska  in  accordance  with 
the  provision  of  section  7350  of  Cobbey’s  Annotated  Statutes 
of  the  State  of  Nebraska. 

Section  2.  The  money  appropriated  by  this  act  shall  be 
paid  l)y  the  State  Treasurer  ipmn  the  warrant  of  the  Auditor 
of  Public  Accounts  issued  under  the  direction  of  the  Govei-- 
nor  of  the  State  of  Nebraska  as  ])i*ovided  by  law. 


COAL  IN  NEBRASKA 


307 


Section  3.  Whereas  an  emergency  exists  this  act  shall  take 
effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its  passage  and  approval. 

The  above  bill  was  reported  favorably  by  the  committee  and 
had  its  third  reading  and  was  passed  by  the  House  March  27, 
1907,  by  a vote  of  68  to  17. 

The  above  bill  took  a like  course  in  the  Senate  and  was 
recommended  “indefinitely  postponed”  l)y  tlie  committee. 
This  re])ort  was  accepted  March  30,  1907. 

A Bill— House  Roll  No.  482. 

Identical  with  the  above,  but  carrying  an  appropriation  for 
four  thousand  dollars  instead  of  ten  thousand  dollars,  wa.s 
brought  before  the  thirty-first  session  of  the  Legislature  of 
Nebraska  by  Fred  Hector,  but  before  action  was  taken  upon 
this  bill  the  Claims  Committee  allowed  four  thousand  dollars 
on  the  claim  of  A.  M.  Borst  of  Pern,  Net).,  which  made  the 
])assage  of  House  Poll  No.  482  unnecessary,  as  it  was  intended 
to  cover  this  particular  claim. 

Presented  for  ])nblication 
May  1908. 


Published 
March  1910. 


20 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR.  State  Geologist 
VOLUME  3 

PART  II 


Preliminary  Notes  on  the 
Carboniferous  Flora  of  Nebraska 

By  ROY  V.  PEPPERBERG 


Preliminary  Notes  on  the 
Carboniferous  Flora 
of  Nebraska. 

BY  ROY  V.  PEPPERBERG. 

About  the  middle  of  July,  1907,  while  engaged  by  the 
Nebraska  City  Commercial  Club  in  examining  the  geology 
of  Nebraska  City  and  vicinity,  the  writer  was  called  to  the 
farm  of  Mr.  C.  B.  James  to  look  at  a l)ed  of  what  was  sup- 
posed to  be  tire  clay.  This  proved  to  be  a Carboniferous 
deposit  of  st]*atilied  micaceous  sandstone,  interstratihed 
with  a fine  compact  shale,  botli  of  which  are  yellow  in 
color  and  very  fragile  when  wet. 

The  exposure  is  about  a mile  and  one-half  northeast  of 
Nebraska  City  and  within  twenty  feet  of  the  Missouri 
Eiver.  A small  creek  draining  into  the  river  has  cut 
through  fifty  feet  of  soil  and  loess  into  the  underlying  shale 
above  described,  the  thickness  of  which  has  not  yet  been 
determined,  extending  as  it  does  below  the  Missouri  water 
level,  (high  water). 

AVhile  examining  this  bed  and  taking  samples  of  the 
same,  the  writer  was  much  surprised  to  discover  many 
leaf  impressions  in  the  shale.  Numerous  s])ecimens  were 
collected  and  brought  to  the  laboratory  for  study. 

The  work  done  up  to  the  present  time  is  preliminary 
only,  and  before  the  Carboniferous  flora  of  this  state  can  be 
definitely  known  it  will  be  ne(‘essary  to  make  a careful 

EDITORIAL  NOTE:  After  completing  his  studies,  and  after 

fulfilling  all  requirements  for  the  Masters  Degree,  the  writer  of  this 
paper  submitted  the  following  two-part  thesis: 

1.  Coal  in  Nebraska,  (Nebraska  Geological  Survey,  part  10, 
Vol.  3). 

2.  Preliminary  Notes  on  the  Carboniferous  Flora  of  Nebraska 
(the  present  paper). 


314 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


search  throughout  the  Carboniferous  region  in  all  of  the 
southeastern  counties  of  Nebraska. 

Since  discovering  the  bed  of  Carboniferous  leaves  at 
Nebraska  City,  the  writer  has  made  two  trips  to  the  local- 
ity, collecting  specimens  from  Nebraska  City  and  Peru. 
The  flora  at  Peru  was  observed  by  Meek  in  1867  and  recent- 
ly by  Mr.  N.  A.  Bengtson,  Adjunct  Professor  of  Geograpliy, 
the  University  of  Nebraska.  It  occurs  in  a formation 
similar  to,  though  more  arenaceous  than  the  one  at  Nebras- 
ka City.  It  is  best  described  by  Meek  as  follows:  ^ 

‘ ‘ Less  than  a quarter  of  a mile  below  the  village  of  Peru 
there  is  an  abrupt  exposure  of  yellowish  and  light-gray, 
soft,  somewhat  micaceous  sandstone,  with  large,  round  and 
compressed  concretions  of  arenaceous  matter,  of  consider- 
able hardness.  Some  of  these  concretions  are  oval  in  form. 
There  are  also  very  curious  irregularly  and  obliquely  ar- 
ranged seams  and  isolated  masses  of  dark  bluish  shaly  ^ 
matter  and  clay.  These  appear  as  if  the  sandstone  had 
been  irregularly  erroded  in  places  during  its  deposition, 
and  the  shaly  matter  deposited  in  the  depressions  and  then 
more  sand  upon  it  again.  Fragments  of  coal  were  also  seen 
imbedded  in  the  sandstone,  along  with  stems  of  Catamites, 
and  broken  up  leaves  of  ferns.  The  sandstone  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  be  stratified,  but  appears  massive  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  oblique  marks  of  deposition,  and  the  in- 
tercalated seams  of  shaly  matter.  The  latter  are  not  con- 
tinuous for  any  distance,  but  often  end  very  abruptly,  or 
in  other  cases  become  much  attentuated,  and  again  swell  out 
to  a foot  or  so  in  thickness.  They  do  not  appear  to  conform 
to  the  bedding  of  the  sandstone  but  cut  obliquely  across  it 
at  various  angles,  and  yet  their  laminated  structure,  and 
fragment  of  plants,  show  they  were  deposited  in  water. 
This  exposure  of  sandstone  rises  abruptly  from  the  edge 
of  the  river  at  high  water,  to  an  elevation  of  about  60  to  65 
feet.  Its  position  is  doubtless  nearly  the  same  as  the  lower 

* 


Meek-Kan./7c^dSc.  XVI,  p.  72 


CARBONIFEROUS  FLORA 


315 


part  of  Otoe  City  (now  Minersville)  section,  tliongli  it  is 
more  arenaceous  here,  and  perhaps  thicker.’’ 

It  is  very  difficult  to  collect  leaf  impressions  from  this 
exposure  except  from  weathered  fragments,  which  cleave 
readily.  The  specimens  found  here  are  of  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent character  from  those  collected  from  Nebraska  City, 
being  composed  largely  of  Calamariae,  and  stumps  of  some 
large  tree  which  is  as  yet  unidentified,  but  probably  a con- 
ifer. Only  one  small  fragment  of  a Nenropteris  pinnule  has 
been  found  so  far,  but  it  is  very  probable  that  others  will 
appear  when  extended  collecting  is  done  in  this  bed. 

In  Nebraska  the  leaf-bearing  bed  has  not  been  traced 
but  it  probably  extends  through  the  Carboniferous  counties, 
that  is  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the  state.  The  only  men- 
tion we  find  of  its  presence,  besides  the  above,  are  such  re- 
ferences as:*  ‘^Fragments  of  plants  are  found  in  a yellow, 
micaceous  sandstone  at  Nebraska  City”  again  ^ ‘‘Two  miles 
above  Kulo  fossil  ferns  are  found  in  a bluish  and  drab 
arenaceous  clay.”  Both  of  these  places  are  in  the  Carboni- 
ferous region  and  the  “plants”  and  “ferns”  referred  to  are 
undoubtedly  Carboniferous  flora. 

It  is  possible  that  the  “fragments  of  plants”  Meek 
found  at  Nebraska  City  were  from  the  same  formation  as 
those  of  recent  discovery,  however  the  sections  do  not  agree 
for  lie  records  them  as  being  fouml  sixty-three  feet  above 
the  Missouri  river  (high  water  mark),  while  the  present  bed 
occurs  only  a few  feet  above  the  same.  Meek’s  section  was 
taken  at  least  three  miles  south  of  the  James  farm  and  since 
the  dip  is  toward  the  southeast  it  is  improbable  that  the  bed 
sixty-three  feet  above  the  Missouri  river  in  this  section 
should  be  present  at  all  three  miles  above,  for  the  entire 
section  is  not  more  than  fifty  feet  above  the  river.  This 
shows  that  if  Meek’s  section  is  correct  there  are  two  dis- 
tinct strata  in  which  Carboniferous  plants  have  been  found 

1.  U.  S.  G.  S.  of  Nebraska  1867,  p.  109. 

2.  Meek-Kan./?rci,c^,Sc.  XVI,  p.  74. 


316 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


at  Nebraska  City,  ^ however  the  writer  saw  no  evidence  of 
plants  in  the  bed  to  which  Meek  refers  although  a careful 
study  was  made  of  the  beds  outcropping  between  Nebraska 
City  and  Minersville  (Otoe  City.) 

Meek’s  Rulo  bed  is  perhaps  in  the  same  horizon  as  the 
Nebraska  City  and  Peru  beds,  for  indications  confirm  the 
supposed  dip  in  that  direction,  first  pointed  out  by  Meek 
and  Hayden  and  since  confirmed  by  all  who  have  worked 
over  the  same  ground. 

The  mention  given  the  Carboniferous  flora  in  1867  being 
the  only  reference  the  writer  has  found  upon  this  flora  in 
Nebraska,  is  deemed  important  enough  to  give  briefly  the 
sections  Meek  made  along  the  Missouri  Kiver  in  which  he 
found  this  flora: 

SECTION  OF  THE  BEDS  AT  THE  NEBRASKA  CITY 

LANDING.^ 

Nature  of  Strata.  Thickness 

Ft.  In. 

E.  Loess  or  blutf  deposit,  consisting  of  fine  light- 
grayish  pulverent  silicious  and  more  or  less 
calcareous  clay  or  marl,  without  distinct 
marks  of  stratification;  rising  back  to  a height 

of  80  to 90  Q 

D.  Yellowish-gray  micaceous,  soft  sandstone, 
laminated  or  in  thin  ripple-marked  layers,  ex- 
cepting 12  to  15  inches  of  the  lower  part, 
which  is  sometimes  hard  and  compact, 

WITH  FRAGMENTS  OF  PLANTS 10  O' 

C.  Drab,  ash,  and  lead-colored,  and  redish  brown 
clays,  with,  near  the  middle  a 9 or  10-inch 
hard  bluish-gray  argillo-calcareous  layer, 
weathering  to  a rusty  color 39  0 

1.  It  is  possible  that  there  is  a local  dip  to  the  North  although? 
it  Is  not  evident. 

2.  U.  S.  G.  S.  Nebraska  1867,  Meek  and  Hayden,  p.  ID  1-2. 


CARBONIFEROUS  FLORA  317 

B.  Several  beds  of  hard,  light-grayish,  and  yel- 
lowish limestones  in  layers  of  from  5 to  20 
inches  in  thickness,  with  soft,  marly  clay 

seams  and  partings 12  0 

A.  a.  Lead-gray  and  greenish  clay,  4 feet: 

b.  Eeddish-brown  ferruginous,  slightly  gritty, 
indurated  clay,  4 feet  exposed  above  high 

water  mark  8 0 

Total  below  drift  69 

SECTIONS  OF  THE  YAKIOUS  BEDS  EXPOSED  AT 

BBOWN^HLLE2 

No.  Nature  of  Strata.  Thickness 

Ft.  In. 

14.  Loess  rising  back  with  the  slope  from  30  or 

40  to 100  0 

13.  Dark-bluish,  very  fine  unctuous  clay,  becom- 
ing nearly  black  below,  and  weathering  to  a 

drab  color  2 0 

12.  Yellowish-gray  granular  or  sub-oolitic  lime- 
stone; massive,  but  showing  a disposition  to 

divide  into  two  layers 3 0 

11.  Unexposed 10  0 

10.  Whitish,  soft  argillaceous  limestone;  6 to  8 

inches  thick  0 8 

9.  Red,  purple,  and  greenish  clays 10  0 

8.  Whitish  and  yellowish  impure  limestone; 

rather  massive 3 0 

7.  Purple  clay 1 0 

6.  Soft,  whitish  limestone 6 0 

5.  Bluish  clay  5 6 

4.  Black  shale  and  seams  of  impure  coal,  with 

IMPRESSIONS  OP  FERN  LEAVES 1 0 

3.  Blue  clay,  with  fragments  of  coal  and  iron 

pyrites 20  0 


1.  U.  S.  G.  S.  Nebraska  1867,  Meek  and  Hayden,  p.  110. 


318 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


2.  Black,  hard  rock,  vrith  crystals  calc  spar.  ...  2 0 

1.  Soft,  yellow,  micaceous  sandstone,  with  irreg- 
ular seams  and  alternating  laminae  of  black 
and  greenish,  more  or  less  carbonaceous  and 
sandy  material,  with  fragments  of  coal.  Many 

BROKEX  LEAVES  OF  FERXS,  PIECES  OF  CALAMITES, 

etc.  Xenropteris  Loshii  (identified  by  Pro- 
fessor Lesqnerenx),  and  Coprolites  of  some 
Selachian  fish,  as  determined  by  Professor 
Agassiz 57  Q 

SECTION  TWO  MILES  ABOVE  RULO  OX  THE 
MISSOURI  RIVER.^ 


No.  Nature  of  Strata.  Thickness 

Ft.  Im 

7.  Loess  with  perhaps  some  drift,  70  to 80  0 

6.  Massive  yellow  limestone 5 0 

5.  Gray  and  yellowish  impure  limestone  and 

drab  clays 4 6 

4.  Bluish  and  drab  arenaceous  clay  With  Fossil 

Ferns.  Xenropteris  hirsnta,  and  X.  Loshii.  . . 7 0 

3.  Coal 0 6 

2.  Indurated  clay,  called  soapstone  by  the  miners 

(not  seen)  0 4 

1.  Bluish  laminated  sandstone,  very  soft,  with 
thin  streaks  of  black,  and  looking  very  much 
like  No.  1 of  the  Brownville  section 8 0 


Most  of  the  work  on  the  Carboniferous  flora  of  North 
America  has  been  done  by  a few  writers  and  confined  to  a 
few  states.  The  forms  thus  indentified  are  very  similar 
to  or  indentical  with  European  forms,  and  by  means  of  this 
flora,  the  beds  of  the  L^nited  States  have  been  correlated 
with  those  of  Europe  at  least  in  a general  way.  The  ex- 
treme vertical  range,  however,  of  many  of  the  species, 


1.  U.  S.  G.  S.  Nebraska  1867,  Meek  and  Hayden,  p.  114. 


CARBONIFEROUS  FLORA 


319 


lessens  the  usefulness  of  this  flora  in  determining-  the  exact 
age  of  the  formation. 

Lesquereux’s  work  on  the  Carboniferous  flora  of 
Pennsylvania  published  by  the  Pennslyvania  Geological 
Survey,^  is  of  a high  grade  and  was  found  to  be  the  best 
source  of  aid  in  identifying  the  flora  at  hand. 

The  writer  has  endeavored  to  correlate  the  terraines 
with  those  of  the  Appalachian  region  by  means  of  the  flora, 
but  has  met  with  but  partial  success.  The  same  difficulties 
are  met  with  as  confronted  Dr.  David  White  in  his  work  on 
the  “Flora  of  the  Outlying  Carboniferous  Basins  of  South- 
western Missouri,  ’ who  says,  ‘ ' Two  obstacles  are  most  im- 
])ortant  in  preventing  satisfactory  determination  of  the 
age  of  plants  and  the  correlation  of  their  containing  ter- 
raines with  others  whose  stratigraphical  position  has  been 
dertermined.  The  first  one  is  the  want  of  even  a single 
paleobotanical  section  of  the  Trans-Mississippi  deposits 
with  which  to  compare  our  flora,  with  the  exceptions  of 
the  flora  from  near  the  base  of  the  Lower  Coal  measures 
in  Henry  County,  Missouri,  and  a supposed  sub-con- 
glomerate flora  from  Washington  County,  Arkansas, 
the  floras  of  the  entire  Carboniferous  series  in  the 
great  western  regions  are  essentially  unknown.  Al- 
though plant-bearing  horizons  have  been  reported  in  the 
diflerent  state  publications  as  occuring  at  various  local- 
ities in  the  Lower,  Middle,  and  Upper  Coal-measures  of 
the  Trans-Mississippi  states,  no  one  has  ever  examined 
them,  I 1)elieve,  nor  have  we  so  much  as  a published  list 
fi'om  any  fixed  horizon.'  (G)nsidering  tliese  circumstances 
it  is  very  earnestly  hoped  that  geologists  in  these  states 
will  cooperate  in  procuring  and  identifying  plants  from  as 

1.  Coal  Flora  Atlas  and  Vol.  P 1,  2,  and  3. 

2.  U.  S.  G.  S.  Bulletin  98, p.  109-10. 

3.  “Two  api)arent  exceptions  to  this  are  two  small  collections 

Identified  by  Lesquereux  from  Ottowa  and  Osage  City,  Kansas;  and  a 
few  plants  from  Jenny  Lind  and  James  Fork,  Arkansas,  * * * * of 

very  slight  correlative  value.” 


320 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


many  fixed  horizons  as  possible,  in  order  to  work  out  the 
flora  associations  and  characteristics  of  the  various  stages 
in  the  different  ascertained  sections  of  the  Coal-measnres, 
with  a view  to  their  final  utilization  in  constructing  stand- 
ard paleobotanical  sections  of  the  Carboniferous  in  those 
areas. 

The  second  difficulty  lies  in  the  unreliability  of  the 
recorded  geographical  distribution  of  the  species  and  of 
the  geological  position  assigned  to  some  of  the  localities, 
seriously  impairing  the  homitaxial  trustworthiness  of  our 
Carboniferous  flora  except  within  broad  limits.” 

The  flora  thus  far  found  in  southeastern  Nebraska, 
although  representing  but  a single  horizon,  does  not  con- 
tain a sufficient  number  of  species  to  correlate  it  definitely 
with  any  horizon  in  eastern  paleobotanical  sections,  so  that 
even  though  the  above  difficulties  do  not  exist,  the  distance 
between  the  sections  together  with  the  great  vertical  range 
of  the  species  identified,  would  still  make  correlation  of  the 
beds  very  difficult. 

At  the  present  time  Carboniferous  plants  have  been 
collected  from  two  localities,  Nebraska  City,  and  Peru,  the 
character  of  the  flora  of  each  being  distinct  from  the  other, 
but  undoubtedly  from  the  same  formation  and  horizon. 

The  Nebraska  City  collection  represents  pieces  of  over 
two  hundred  specimens,  more  than  nine-tenths  of  which  are 
Neuropterids,  which  is  very  remarkable  and  indicates  an 
upland  flora.  It  has  often  been  observed  that  tlie  Neurop- 
terids seem  to  crowd  out  the  other  species  to  a large  extent 
and  a few  inches  of  shale  or  sandstone  may  separate  a bed 
of  these  from  a flora  of  entirely  different  character  or  facies. 
This  seems  to  be  the  case  in  this  horizon,  for  from  all  ap- 
pearances the  strata  containing  the  Nebraska  City  Neurop- 
terids must  underlie  the  bed  of  Calamariae,  etc.,  at  Peru, 
extending  toward  the  south  into  Kansas,  where  Meek  and 
Hayden  reported^  “On  the  Iowa  Keserve,  along  the  Great 

1.  U.  S.  G.  S.  of  Nebraska  in  1887  p. 


CARBONIFEROUS  FLORA. 


321 


Nemaha  Eiver  in  Kansas,  jnst  south  of  Rulo,  Nebraska,  the 
rocks  in  contact  with  the  coal  beds  are  as  follows:  Under- 
lying the  coal  beds,  a bed  of  light  gray  fire  clay,  full  of 
fragments  of  plants  as  fern  leaves  Nenropteris  Loshii,  and 
N.  hirsnta,  stems  of  rushes  and  calamites,  and  same  as 
occur  in  the  underlying  clays  of  Ohio  and  Illinois  coal 
fields.”  At  present  the  Calamariae  have  not  been  found  at 
Nebraska  City  nor  the  Nenropterids  at  Pern,  to  any  great 
extent,  but  it  is  very  probable  that  further  search  will  show 
them  to  be  present  at  both  places. 

In  the  Trans-Mississippi  region  the  flora  nearest  the  one 
at  hand,  both  geographically  and  stratiographically,  is  the 
Elsdale  flora  at  Onaga,  northeastern  part  of  Pottawatomie 
County,  Kansas,  which  has  been  described  by  David  White^ 
and  F.  F.  Crevecoeiir.-  The  only  species  found  in  common 
in  these  two  floras  is  Odontopteris,  Asterophyllites  equiseti- 
formis  Brongn,  and  Nenropteris  Scheuchzeri  Hoffm,  but  it 
is  very  probable  that  others  will  be  found  in  common  as  the 
horizon  is  further  developed. 

The  formation  bearing  the  above  flora  from  Onaga,  is 
placed  in  Prosser’s  classification,'^  “in  the  Wabaunsee  stage 
of  the  Missourian  series,  beginning  about  200  feet  below 
its  top.”  The  writer  has  placed  the  Nebraska  flora  in  an 
upper  member  of  the  Atchison  Shales  (Prosser’s  Wabaun- 
see) about  100  feet  from  its  top,  so  that  if  these  classifica- 
tions are  correct,  the  two  floras  are  probably  separated  by 
about  100  feet  of  shale. 

The  formations  between  these  places  have  never  been 
carefully  traced  nor  identified  with  certainty,  but  Peede  is 
probably  (‘orrect  in  his  assuni])tion,‘^  that  the  section  at 
Topeka,  Kansas,  corresi)onds  to  a section  taken  from  the 
-bottom  of  the  Minersville  section  to  the  top  of  the  Nebraska 

1.  U.  S.  (L  S.  Bulletin  211,  p.  115-116. 

2.  Kansas  Academy  of  Science  Vol.  XVlIl,  p.  124-1  28. 

3.  American  Geologist,  Vol.  36,  p.  150. 

4.  J.  W.  Beede,  Kansas  Academy  of  Science,  Vol.  XVI,  p.  83. 


322 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


City  section.  This  supposition  seems  to  agree  with  observa^ 
tions  made  by  Meek,  Hayden,  Prosser  and  Geinitz. 

In  any  event  the  Nebraska  City  beds  must  belong  to- 
the  upper  part  of  the  Atchison  Shales,  for  the  Cottonwood 
limestone  has  been  unmistakably  identified  some  distance 
north  and  west  of  Nebraska  City  lying  conformably  upon 
these  shales. 

These  conditions  would  lead  one  to  suppose  that  the 
Nebraska  City  and  Peru  floras  were  of  practically  the  same 
age  as  the  Onaga  flora,  probably  a little  younger,  however. 
Dr.  White,  in  commenting  upon  this  flora,  says,  should 
not  be  disposed  to  place  it  above  the  Conemaugh,  or  lowest 
Monongahela  of  the  Appalachian  trough,  though  it  is,  of 
course,  possible  tliat  further  search  will  bring  to  light 
younger  forms.”  The  Conemaugh  being  the  middle  forma- 
tion of  the  Pennsylvanian,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  a 
younger  flora  will  occur  in  these  supposedly  Upper  Pennsyl- 
vanian beds.  If,  upon  further  examination  of  this  field, 
younger  forms  are  not  brought  to  light,  we  may  conclude 
that  these  beds  belong  to  the  Middle  instead  of  the  Upper 
Pennsylvanian,  where  they  are  now  placed. 

The  following  is  a list  of  the  Carboniferous  flora  now 
identified  in  Nebraska  and  contains  specimens  from  two- 
orders,  four  families  and  twelve  species. 

PTERIDOPHYTA. 


Filiciaes. 

Neuropteris  Scheuchzeri,  Hoffm. 
var.  hirsuta,  Lesq. 
var.  angustifolia,  Brgt. 

N.  ovata,  Hofi'm.  (N.  Loshii,  Brgt.) 
Odontopteris,  sp.  Brgt. 

Equisetalis. 

Equisetites  occidentalis  ( ?),  Lesq. 

E.  sp. 

Calamites,  Suck. 


CARBONIFEROUS  FLORA 


323^ 


C.  sp. 

Asterophyllites  eqiiisetiformis  ( f),  Sclilotli. 

Archaeocalamites  scrobiciilatiis  (f),  Sclilotli. 

Lycopodiales. 

Lepidostrobus  (Macrocystis),  Salisburyi  (?). 

L.  sp. 

SPERMATOPHYTA. 

Gymnosperma. 

Coiiiferae  (2)  sp. 

IDENTIFICATION. 

Of  the  Nebraska  City  flora,  Neuropteris  Sclieiiclizeri 
is  by  far  the  most  important  and  abundant  species.  In 
speaking  of  this  species  Dr.  David  White  says,^ ‘‘Nenrop- 
teris  Sclieiiclizeri  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  American 
Paleozoic  Ferns,  with  regard  to  variation  in  a species. 
Ranging  as  it  does,  from  near  the  base  of  the  Lower  Pro- 
ductive Coal  Measures,  or  Alleghany  series,  to  the  highest 
beds  of  the  Permian  or  Dunkard  Creek  series,  it  presents 
a valuable  illustration  of  the  modification  of  a species  found 
at  many  horizons  in  a thick  series  of  probably  continu- 
ously deiiosited  sediments.  So  far  as  my  observations  have 
extended  in  collections  from  American  localities  and  hori- 
zons, it  may  be  noted  that,  in  general,  both  in  the  anthracite 
and  the  bituminous  fields,  the  earliest  representatives  of 
the  s])ecies,  in  the  lowest  coals  are  ])revailingly  smaller,  nar- 
rower, and  more  triangular  ami  pointed,  the  bail  s fine,  short 
and  often  invisible.  A little  higher,  as  for  exani])le  in  the 
E or  E veins,  as  numbered  in  the  northern  anthracite  field 
by  the  Pennsylvania  survey,  the  narrow,  acute  forms  be- 
come rare  and  the  jiroportion  of  broader,  more  obtuse  i)in- 
nules  increases,  the  ])innules  becoming  larger  at  the  same 
time  and  more  ('()ns})i('uously  liirsute,  while  at  the  horizon 


1.  U.  S.  G.  S.  Monograph  37,  p.  135-G. 


:324 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


of  the  Pittsburg  coal  and  of  the  higher  anthracite  coals  the 
leaflets  are  mostly  broad  and  Ungulate,  the  hairs  less  plain; 
and  again  those  pinnules  from  the  Wayneshurg  and  Wash- 
ington coals,  in  the  so-called  Permian  are  almost  exclusively 
broad,  very  large,  rounded  at  the  top,  more  broadly  articu- 
late at  the  base,  distinctly  and  rather  broadly  pedicellate, 
while  the  hairs  are  usually  very  obscure,  if  not  absent. 
Thus  the  sequence  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  form,  the 
series  between  two  types  would  if  considered  independent- 
ly be  properly  regarded  as  distinct  species,  is  marked 
by  so  many  intermediate  or  transitional  phases  that  it 
seems  at  present  entirely  impracticable  to  attempt  to  draw 
any  lines  of  a specific  grade.  Yet  the  differences  between 
the  types  prevailing  at  stages  vertically  distant  are  great 
enough  to  easily  constitute  varieties,  if  one  does  not  attempt 
to  carry  the  varietal  distinction  all  the  way  through  the  in- 
tervening series.  And,  since  these  phases  or  forms  are 
more  or  less  peculiar  to  different  portions  of  the  vertical 
section,  they  possess  a stratigraphic  and  correlative  value, 
and  deserA'e,  therefore,  some  reference  term  and  definitive 
-distinction.  Some  system  of  nomenclature  will  be  necessary 
if  the  unquestionable  geologic  utility  of  these  phases  is  to 
be  rendered  available. 

Accordingly,  for  the  common  early  form  that  is 
characterized  in  general  by  its  smaller  size,  narrow  or  tri- 
angular form,  with  small  auricles  squared  on  the  quarter, 
the  median  nerve  slender,  the  pedicel  short  and  narrow, 
the  hairs  being  delicate,  often  short  or  found  with  difficul- 
ty. I would  use,  in  a varietal  sense,  the  name  ‘‘Angusti- 
folia,”  which  was  applied  by  Lesquereux  to  most  of  the 
pinnules  of  this  character  from  Henry  County,  Missouri. 

The  varietal  designation  as  suggested  above  should 
be  credited  to  Bunbury. 

In  this  paper  the  writer  has  not  tried  to  draw  a 
-distinct  line  between  the  different  varieties  of  Neuropteris 
^cheuchzeri  as  different  authors  do  not  seem  to  agree  on  the 


CARBONIFEROUS  FLORA 


325-' 


distinction  of  the  varietal  terms,  but  it  seems  proper  ta 
classify  them  in  a general  way  into  three  varieties,  namely: 
angnstifolia,  hirsnta,  and  nnda,  if  sufficient  differences  can 
be  found  between  these  varieties. 

It  is  probable  that  more  correlative  value  would  be 
derived  from  the  species  of  N.  Scheuchzeri  if  it  were  broken 
up  into  two  or  three  separate  species  with  as  marked  lines 
of  distinction  as  could  be  drawn.  In  this  way  tlie  extremes 
of  the  species  would  receive  a better  classification,  and  the 
forms  just  between  would  lose  none  of  their  value  by  being 
placed  on  one  side  or  the  other  of  the  line,  by  different 
authorities. 

‘‘Though  N.  Scheuchzeri  has  not  yet  been  re])orted  from 
below  the  true  Coal  Measures,  or  Alleghany  series,  in  the 
United  States,  it  is  not  improbable  that  representatives 
of  it  may  yet  be  found  in  what  has  been  described  as  the 
“ Conglomerate  series,”  or  better,  as  the  “Pottsville  series” 
or  formation.”^ 

The  following  is  the  list  of  the  geological  ages  and 
localities  where  the  species  Neuropteris  Scheuchzeri  Hoffm. 
is  recorded  as  having  been  found." 

LOWER  COAL  MEASURES,  B.  Morris,  Murpliyboro, 
Mazon  Creek,  Colchester,  111.  (Lesq.);  Spring  Creek,  Ind. 
(Lescj.) ; Union  Cb.,  Ky.  (Lesq.) ; C.  Darlington  bed,  Cannel- 
ton,  Pa.  (Lesq.) ; Clinton,  Mo.  (Lesq.) ; I),  or  E.  Sullivan  Co., 
Ind.  (Lesq.);  (f)  Shirley  Knob,  Cass  Township,  Pa.  (I.  C. 
W.) ; R.  I.  (Lesq.) ; Ottawa,  111.  (Lesq.) ; Jenny  Lind  James 
Fork,  Ark.  (D.  W.^ — Lesq.);  Ottawa,  Osage  City,  Kans. 
(Les(j.);  Mansfield,  Mass.  (Marcou). 

LOWER  BARREN  MEASURES,  20  feet  below  Pitts^ 
burg  coal,  near  Wheeling,  W.  Va.  (F.  & W.);  (I)  Bellaire, 
0.,  20  feet  below  Pittsburg  coal  (F.  & W.). 

UPPER  COAL  MEASURES,  G.  St.  Clairsville,  Pom- 

1.  U.  S.  G.  S.  Monograph  37,  p.  136. 

2.  Compiled  by  David  White,  U.  S.  G.  S.  Bull.  No. 98,  p.  114. 


■326 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


<?roy,  0.  (Lesq.);  Pittsburg  coal,  near  mouth  Bedstone 
Creek,  Pa.  (Lesley). 

PERMO-CAEBOXIFEPOUS,  AV.  Va.  (F.  & ^Y.). 

AXTHEACITE  SERIES,  A.  Sliamokin;  C.  Ontario 
coal,  Pittston;  D.  Carbon  Hill  tunnel;  D.  or  E.  Brown’s 
Coll.,  Pittston;  E.  Yatesville;  F.  Wilkesbarre;  G.  Olyphant, 
M.  Gate  Vein,  Pottsville,  Pa.  (all  Lesq.). 

The  following  species  identified  from  the  flora  of  the 
Xebraska  Carboniferous  are  described  accordingly  to 
Lesquereux.^ 

XEUROPTERIS  SCHEUCHZERI  HOFFM. 

Var.  hirsuta  Lesqx. 

Frond  bipinnate,  tripinnate;  primary  pinnae  very  large 
secondary  divisions  alternate,  oblique,  lanceolate;  ultimate 
pinnae  trifoliate  in  the  lower  part  of  the  branches;  becoming 
simple  in  the  upper  part;  middle  leaflets  large,  lanceolate, 
obtuse,  entire  of  undulate;  cordate  and  sessile  to  the  rachis 
when  simple;  pedicellate  when  compound  or  bearing  one 
or  two  small  round  or  oval  leaflets  at  the  base:  lower  sur- 
face hairy;  costa  distinct,  strong,  and  ascending  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  laminae  in  the  middle  pinnules  only;  veins 
dichotomous,  arched,  thin  and  close,  flabellate  from  the  base 
in  the  latteral  or  basilar  leaflets,  with  rarely  a trace  of  a 
midrib. 

Var.  Angustifolia  Brgt. 

Primary  pinnae  dichotomous,  alternately  forking  in 
branches  of  a thick  rachis;  pinnae  very  long,  in  a broad 
angle  of  divergence;  pinnules  simple  or  trifoliate,  the 
medial  ones  linear-lanceolate,  obtuse,  the  basilar,  small 
reniform  or  oval;  venation  same  as  in  the  former  species. 

XEUROPTERIS  LOSHII  BRGT. 

Frond  pinnately  dichotomous;  pinnae  open,  linear, 
slightly  narrowed  to  obtuse  terminal  pinnule;  pinnules  ob- 


1.  Coal  flora  of  Pennsylvania,  Vol.  I and  II. 


CARBONIFEROUS  FLORA 


327 


long,  sub-cordate,  very  obtuse,  more  or  less  enlarged  on  tlie 
lower  side  of  the  base,  sessile;  costa  distinct  near  the  base, 
effacing  above;  veins  thin,  close  dichotomous. 

NEUROPTIdRIS  OVATA  HOFFM,  (N.  LOSHII  BRGT.) 

Frond  pinna tely  dichotomous;  pinnae  open,  linear, 
slightly  narrowed  to  an  obtuse  terminal  pinnule;  pinnules 
oblong,  sub-cordate,  very  obtuse,  more  or  less  enlarged  on 
the  lower  side  of  the  base,  sessile;  costa  distinct  near  the 
base,  effacing  above ; veins  thin,  close,  dichotomous. 

ODONTOPTERIS  BRGT. 

Fronds  large,  bipinnate;  pinnae  opiiosite  or  subalter- 
nate; pinnules  of  various  forms,  generally  oblong,  obtuse, 
jointed  to  the  rachis  by  their  whole  base  sometimes  de- 
current, either  disjointed  and  separate  to  the  base,  or  con- 
nate to  the  middle,  generally  becoming  confluent  toward 
the  top  of  the  pinnae  and  gradually  effaced  in  passing  to  a 
terminal  leaflet;  lower  pinnules  sometimes  attached  to  the 
main  rachis  and  difform;  veins  emerging  from  the  rachis, 
more  rarely  from  a midrib;  veinlets  thin,  dichotomous, 
diverging  straight  or  in  a curve,  in  passing  to  the  borders. 

This  genus  is  intimately  allied  to  Neuroptei:is. 

The  Odontoperis  in  hand  is  marked  by  numerous, 
•equal,  parallel  veins,  coming  out  of  the  rachis  with  no  mid- 
rib and  was  classified  by  Weiss^  as  O.  proper  (Xenopteris). 

C^ALAMARIAE. 

Plants  arborescent;  trunks  cylindrical,  articulate; 
articulations  variable  in  distance,  rajiidly  closer  toward 
the  narrowed  obconical  base;  surface  narrowly  ribbed  and 
furrowed  lengthewise;  ribs  equal,  simple,  parallel  contract- 
ed or  rounded  at  the  articulations;  branches  nearly  at  right 
angles,  verticulate  like  the  leaves,  which  are  lanceolate 
acuminate,  simple  nerved. 


1.  Fossil  Flora  p.  31. 


328 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAI.  SURVEY. 


ASTEKOPIIYLLITES  EQEISETFOKMIS,  SCHLOTH. 

Primary  brandies  long,  obscurely  striate;  cortex  thick;: 
latteral  brandies  more  or  less  oblique,  simple;  leaves  linear 
acuminate,  straight  or  curved  inside;  costa  thick. 

E(,)ri8ETITES  8CHP. 

Plants  aborescent;  stems  articulate;  articulations  sur- 
rounded with  more  or  less  distinct  costate  sheaths,  deeply 
dentate  on  the  border. 

>:(,)UI8E/riTE8  OCCd I )EXTALI8,  LE8QX. 

8tems  small,  narrowly  ribbed  lengthwise;  sheaths  long 
and  thick,  cut  at  the  margin  in  short,  triangular,  acute, 
largo  teeth. 

EEPI1)08TK()P>U8  AXI)  LEPIDOPIIYLLUM. 

8trobiles  (‘ylindrical  or  ovate,  oblong,  conical,  variable 
in  length,  composed  of  sporanges  (spore  cases)  sub-cylin- 
drical or  clavate,  emarginate  at  the  apex,  supported  in  the- 
middle  lengthwise  by  bracts  formed  of  a pedicel  attached 
like  the  sporanges  at  right  angles  to  the  axis,  linear  or  ob- 
lanceolate,  either  simple,  not  longer  tlian  the  sporanges  or 
prolonged  into  lanceolate  obtuse  or  acuminate  laminae,, 
curved  upwards  on  the  outside  of  the  strobiles  and  imbri- 
cated on  their  sides,  or  merely  inflated  at  the  outer  end  and 
covering  the  apex  of  the  sporanges  by  a rhomboidal  small 
shield;  spores  triquetre  on  one  side,  half  globular  on  the 
other,  like  those  of  the  Lycopods,  homorphous  or  dimor- 
phous. 

LEPID08TR0BU8  (MACROCY8TI8) , 8ALI8BURYI, 

8tobiles  cylindrical,  very  long,  flexuous;  axis  broad, 
marked  by  long,  narrowly  oval  scar  impressions  of  the  base 
of  large  inflated  linear  oblong  sporanges,  without  any 
pedicel  or  support. 


CARBONIFEROUS  FLORA. 


329 


The  following  fossils  were  gathered  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Nebraska  City  leaf  bed,  from  overlying  limestone  beds: 

1.  Peotozoa 

Fnsniina  secalica 

2.  COELENTEEATA 
Loijliophyllum  profimdnm 

3.  Echinodeemata 
Erisocrinus  typus 
Zeocrinns  mncrospinus 

4.  Molluscoidea 

Bryozoa  and  Brachiopcda 
Cyclotrypa  (f)  barberi  Ulrich 
Septopora  biserialis-nervata 
Productus  semireticulatiis 
P.  longispinus 
P.  cora 

Spirifer  cameratns 
Chonetes  granulifer 
C.  verneniliana 
Pugnax  Utah 

Ambocoelia  planoconvexa 
Seminnla  argentea 
Enteletes  hemiplicata 
Spiriferina  cristata 
Derbya  crassa 

5.  Moli.usca 

Avicnlopecten  sp. 

Allorisma  subcuneatnm 
Edrnondia  sp. 

Nautilus  sp. 

Euomphalus  rugosus 
Bellerophon  urii 

1.  The  writer  was  assisted  in  the  collection  of  the  above  fosslL 
by  Edwin  G.  Davis,  and  in  their  identification  by  Miss  C.  A.  Barbour. 


330 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


Department  of  the  Interior 
UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SUEVEY 


Washington,  July  9,  1910. 

Mr.  E.  Pepperberg, 

Lincoln,  Neb.  ^ 

Dear  Mr.  Pepperberg: 

In  my  last  letter  to  you  reporting  on  the  fragments  you 
sent  I promised  to  write  you  again  should  anything  of  inter- 
est or  value  develop  from  the  microscopical  examination  of 
the  specimens. 

Doctor  Eeinhardt  Thiessen,  my  assistant,  to  whom  I 
turned  over  the  fragments  of  partially  petrified  stems  which 
you  sent  about  three  months  ago  and  who  examined  them 
at  my  request,  finds  that  the  small,  slender,  fragauent, 
though  not  petrified  so  as  to  be  translucent,  is  nevertheless 
])reserved  in  great  detail  by  means  of  marcasite.  The  type 
(Medullosa)  which  it  represents  has  never,  I believe,  been 
found  before  in  North  America  in  the  petrified  state.  It 
probably  represents  a new  species  and  it  would  be  of  in- 
terest if  you  could  secure  additional  material  for  study. 
The  larger  fragments  examined  were  also  found  to  belong 
to  the  same  genus  but  the  decay  was  so  far  advanced  that 
it  is  not  practical  to  attempt  any  further  demonstration  or 
description. 

Doctor  Thiessen,  who  has  been  employed  in  the  Tech- 
nologic Branch  of  the  Survey,  is  now  naturally  in  the 
Bureau  of  Mines,  but  I take  the  liberty  of  leaving  the  small 
specimen  in  his  hands  and  I regard  him  as  competent  to 
undertake  its  description. 

Very  truly  yours, 

DAVID  WHITE. 

Additional  material  will  be  placed  in  Dr.  Thiessen ’s 
hands  as  soon  as  time  will  permit  and  interesting  results 
may  bo  expected. 

Bresented  for  publication  May,  1908. 

Fublished  July,  1910. 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


VOLUME  3,  part  11,  PLATE 


I 

3 


FERN  PINNULES:  NEUROPTERIS. 

1 to  6.  Neuropteris  Scheuchzeri,  Hoffm.  (var,  angustifolia , Brgt.)  Symmetrical  base.  Nebraska  City. 
7,  8.  Same  showing  asymmetrical  auriculate  and  pedicellate  base.  Nebraska  City. 

9.  A portion  of  same  enlarged  showing  nervation  and  short  slender  hairs.  Nebraska  City. 


UNIVER 


library 

OF  THE 
SITY  OF 


iLUxo; 


VOLUME  3,  PART  11,  PLATE  2 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


FERN  PINNULES:  NEUROPTERIS. 


Neuropteris  Scheuchzeri , Hoffm.  Nebraska  Cily. 


library 
OF  THE 

UNlVEROiTY  Of  ILUNO! 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


VOLUME  3,  PART  11,  PLATE  3 


FERN  PINNULES:  NEUROPTERIS. 


Neuropteris  Scheuchzeri,  Hoffm.  Nebraska  City 


LIBRARY 
Of  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


PLATE 


FERN,  BASILAR  PINNULES:  NEUROPTERIS. 


Neuropteris  Scheuchzeri,  Hoffm, 

Round,  reniform,  and  oval  basilar  pinnules.  Nebraska  City 


library 
OF  the 

university  of  ilunois 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


FERN  PINNULES:  NEUROPTERIS. 


Neuropteris  Scheuchzeri.  Hoffm.  NebrasWa  City 


UBRARY 

umwers^tv  Of  laiNWS 


i 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


VOLUME  3,  PART  11,  PLATE  6 


FERN  PINNULES:  NEUROPTERIS. 


Neuropteris  Scheuchzeri,  Hoffm.,  Portions  of  fronds.  Nebraska  City. 


* ^ 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


VOLUME  3,  PART  11.  PLATE  7 


FERN  PINNULES:  NEUROPTERI3. 


Neuropteris  sp.  Nebraska  City. 


library 

OF  TOE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


VOLUME  3,  PART  11,  PLATE  8 


FERN  STEMS:  NEUROPTERIS, 


Neuropteris  Scheuchzeri,  Hoffm..  Carbonized  Stems.  Nebraska  City. 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


VOLUME  3,  PART  11,  PLATE  9 


FERN:  NEUROPTERIS. 

1,  2.  Neuropteris  ovata,  Hoffm.  (N.  Losshii,  Brgt.)  ITop  and  bottom  layers).  Nebraska  City. 

3.  Lepidostrobus  (Macrocystis),  Salisbury!  (?)  Peru. 

4.  Lepidostrobus  sp.  (sporangium  of).  Nebraska  City. 

5.  Crossotheca  (Carbonized  and  Internal  sporangeal  structure  visible!.  Nebraska  City. 


NEBRBSKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


VOLUME  3,  PART  11,  PLATE  10 


EQUISETALES;  ASTEROPH YLLITES. 
FERN:  ODONTOPTERIS. 

WOOD:  GYMNOSPERMIC  (LIMONITIC). 


1.  Asterophyllites  equisetiformis,  Schloth.  Nebraska  City. 

2.  Odontopteris  sp.  Brgt.  Nebraska  City. 


3 to  5.  Coniferae  two  sps. 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


VOLUME  3,  PART  11,  PLATE  11 


1.  Calamites  Suck.  Peru. 


CALAMITES. 


2,  3.  Calamites  sp.  Peru. 


tiSKAWr 

OMlVERsW^WlNOlS 


NEBRASKA  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


VOLUME  3,  PART  11,  PLATE  12 


PITH  CASTS  AND  STEMS  OF  EQUISETALIS. 

1 to  4.  Calamitean  pith  cast.  Nebraska  City. 

5.  Exquisetalis  sp.  Peru. 

6.  Exquisetalis  occidentalis  (?j  Lesq.  Peru. 
Exquisetalis  sp.,  Peru. 


7. 


library 

OF  THE 

university  W ILUNOtS 


21 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  STATE  GEOLOGIST 

VOLUME  111 

PART  12 


PRELIMINARY  NOTICE  OF  A NEWLY  DISCOVERED 
BED  OF  MIOCENE  DIATOMS 


ELEANOR  BARBOUR 


Scientific  Contribution 
Geological  fund  of  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill 


LINCOLN,  NEB. 
WOODRUFF  HANK  NOTE  CO. 
1910 


PRELIMINARY  NOTICE  OF  A NEWLY  DISCOVERED  BED 
OF  MIOCENE  DIATOMS 

By  Eleanor  Barbour 

The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  announce  the  discovery  of  a bed 
of  diatomite  in  the  well  known  Miocene  beds  at  Agate,  Sioux 
County,  Nebraska,  and  to  review  briefly  what  has  been  done  in 
the  study  of  fossil  Diatoms  in  this  State. 

Introductory  to  descriptions  of  this  particular  deposit,  it 
may  not  be  amiss  to  give  a summary  of  some  of  the  best  known 
diatomaceous  beds,  and  to  show  their  occurrence  in  geologic 
time.  That  Diatoms  date  l)ack  to  the  Devonian  is  shown  by  the 
discovery  of  remnants  of  these  minute  -plant  frustules  in  the  horn- 
stone,  or  chert,  of  the  Corniferous  limestone  of  North  America. 
Abbe  Castracane,  an  Italian  diatomologist  asserted  in  1876  that 
he  had  discovered  Diatoms  in  Coal  from  an  English  coal  measure, 
l)ut  their  close  identity  with  modern  forms  leads  to  the  belief  that 
the  association  was  accidental.  The  I)ulk  of  fossil  Diatoms  occurs 
in  and  subsequent  to  Cretaceous  time,  l)ut  two  strictly  authentic 
species  are  recorded  in  the  Liassic.  The  Diatoms  found  in  Creta- 
ceous and  Tertiary  deposits  l)ear  a striking  resemblance  to  living 
forms.  As  examples  of  famous  deposits  l)elonging  to  these  forma- 
tions may  be  mentioned,  the  fresh-water  deposit  at  Berlin,  a 
deposit  at  Konigsberg,  and  at  Bilin  in  Bohemia,  and  a very  ex- 
tensive de})Osit  of  marine  origin  from  20  to  80  feet  thick  on  which 
the  city  of  Richmond,  Virginia,  is  built.  The  Church  Hill  tunnel 
was  cut  through  this  deposit  three-fourths  of  a mile.  Seward 
considers  this  bed  at  Richmond  to  be  Cretaceous  or  Tertiary, 
while  Nicholson  cites  it  as  an  example  of  Miocene  deposition. 
Diatom  representatives  of  the  lower  Eocene  have  been  discovered 
in  the  London  Clays  of  that  ])eriod.  The  de])osits  found  hereto- 
fore in  Nebraska,  belong  ])r‘obably  to  the  Clacial  epoch.  Samples 
from  these  beds  have  been  examined,  and  the  species  described 
and  figured  by  Professor  Erwin  II.  Barbour  and  Clarence  J.  Elmore 
in  a paper  entitled  '^The  Diatomaceous  Deposits  of  Nebraska” 
given  before  the  Nebraska  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1894. 


4 


Miocene  Diatoms 


The  first  diatomaceous  deposit  to  be  discovered  in  Nebraska 
was  an  excellent,  pure  white,  layer,  almost  entirely  free  from 
foreign  matter,  found  b'eptember  23,  1895,  in  Wheeler  County. 
A few  weeks  later  a larger  deposit,  of  equal  purity,  was  reported 
in  Hooker  County.  Shortly  after,  deposits  were  found  in  Thomas, 
Blaine,  Garfield,  Greeley,  A'alley,  Sherman  and  Nance  Counties, 
and  students  were  sent  from  the  University  to  search  for  diatomite 
and  collect  samples  for  the  State  Museum. 

vSeveral  exposures  w'ere  found  in  Hooker  County,  varying  from 
one  to  five  or  six  feet  in  thickness,  with  about  fifty  feet  of  over- 
lying  soil.  The  Thomas  f'ounty  deposit  varies  from  eighteen 
inches  to  five  feet  in  thickness,  with  the  depth  of  overlying  soil 
varying  from  one  to  three  feet.  The  same  beds  are  to  be  found 
in  Greele}’,  Nance,  4Tlley,  and  Sherman  counties. 

The  Hayes  County  samples  consist  of  Diatoms  and  volcanic  ash, 
which  is  of  common  occurrence  in  the  State.  The  diatomaceous 
deposits  of  MTieeler  and  Greeley  counties  lie  under  a 1 ed  of  peat 
from  two  to  three  feet  thick. 

In  studying  deposits  from  tlie  above  mentioned  Counties,  Mr. 
C.  J.  Elmore  recognized  the  following  list  of  Diatoms: 

LIST  OF  FOSSIL  DIATO:\IS  FROM  THE  DEPOSITS  DESCRIBED 
BY  PROFESSOR  BARBOUR 

1.  Amphora  oralis  var.  gracilis.  2.  Bacillaria  amphibia. 

3.  Bacillaria  amphibia  var.  frauenfddii.  4.  Bacillaria  obtusa. 

5.  Bacillaria  sinuata.  6.  Bacillaria  spcctahilis.  7.  Bacillaria 

subtilis.  S.  Bacillaria  vermiciilaris.  9.  Cocconds  placentula. 

10.  Cymatoplcura  dliptica.  11.  Cymatopleura  solea.  12.  Cym- 
bella  cistula.  13.  Cymbdla  cuspidata.  14.  Cymbdla  cymbijormis. 
15.  Cymbdla  cymbijormis  var.  parra.  16.  Cymbdla  gastroides. 

17.  Cymbdla  inequalis.  18.  Cymbdla  lanceolata.  19.  Cymbdla 

laevis.  20.  Cystopleura  gibba.  21.  Cystophura  gibba  var.  verdri- 
cosa.  22.  Cystopleura  ocdlata.  23.  Cystopleura  turgida.  24.  Cysto- 
pleura turgida  var.  vertagus.  25.  Cystopleura  zebra.  26.  Encyo- 
nema  caespitosum.  27.  Eunotia  arcus.  28.  Eunotia  diodon. 
29.  Eunotia  formica.  30.  Eunotia  formica  vaia  elongata.  31.  Eu- 
notia lunaris.  32.  Eragilaria  construens.  33.  Eragilaria  construens 
var.  venter.  34.  Eragilaria  dliptica.  35.  Gomphonema  acumina- 
tum. 36.  Gomphonema  constrictum.  37.  Gomphonema  gracile. 


Nebraska  Geological  Survey 


5 


38.  GompJionema  herculeanum.  39.  Gomphonema  intricatum. 
40.  Gomphonema  montanum  var.  subclavatiim.  41. j Gomphonema 
parvulum.  42.  Gomphonema  turris.  43.  Gomphonema  vibrio. 
44.  Hantzschia  amphioxys.  45.  Hantzschia  amphioxys  var.  major. 
46.  Melosira  distans.  47.  Meridion  constrictum.  48.  Navicula 
ambigua.  49.  Navicula  baciiliformis.  50.  Navicula  cuspidata. 
51.  Navicula  dicephala.  52.  Navicula  elliptica.  53.  Navicula 
limosa.  54.  Navicula  macilenta.  55.  Navicula  nobilis.  56.  Navi- 
cula parva.  57.  Navicula  placentula.  58.  Navicula  placentula 
var.  tumida.  59.  Navicula  pupula.  60.  Navicula  radiosa.  61.  Na- 
vicula radiosa  var.  acuta.  62.  Navicula  rostrata.  63.  Navicula 
serians.  64.  Navicula  sphaerophora.  65.  Navicula  trinodis  var. 
inflata.  66.  Navicula  viridis.  67.  Navicula  viridula  var.  sles- 
vicensis.  68.  Opephora  pacifica.  69.  Stauroneis  minutissima. 
70.  Stauroneis  phoenicenteron.  71.  Surirayu  spiralis.  72.  Suri- 
raya  splendida.  73.  Synedra  capitaia.  74.  Synedra  radians. 
75.  Synedra  tenuissima.  76.  Synedra  ulna  var.  am phirhynchus. 
77.  Synedra  ulna  var.  longissima.  78.  Synedra  ulna  var.  oxyr- 
hynchus.  79.  Tabellaria  fenestrata.  80.  T etracyclus  lacustris. 

A NEWLY  DISCOVERED  RED  OF  MIOCENE  DIATOMS 

The  new  bed  of  Diatomite,  herein  described  for  the  first  time 
was  discovered  l:)y  Mr.  Harold  J.  Cook^  in  the  summer  of  1908, 
near  his  home  at  Agate,  Sioux  County,  and  was  visited  twice  by 
the  writer  while  the  Morrill  Geological  Expedition,  sent  out  by 
the  University  of  Nebraska,  was  camped  there. 

A section  of  the  bed  exposed  in  a draw  shows  a thickness  of 
eight  to  ten  feet  Imt  the  extent  is  undetermined.  The  material 
is  fairly  com})act  and  may  l)e  spoken  of  as  rocky.  Near  this  l)ed 
and  on  about  the  same  level  is  a deposit,  similar  in  chai’acter 
and  texture,  but  more  earthy.  The  ])resence  of  identical  foians 
in  both,  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  second  bed  was  derived 
from  the  first  by  disintegration.  The  Diatoms  from  this  dej)osit 
differ  noticeably,  in  almost  every  instance,  from  tlie  fossil  Diatoms 
of  other  known  de})osits  in  the  State,  and  still  more  widely  from 
modern  forms.  This  dissimilarity,  alone,  would  indicate  that  they 
are  of  eai-lier  origin. 

Preparatory  to  the  study  of  the  matei-ial  from  this  dej)osit  two 
hundred  xylol  balsam  mounts  wei-e  made.  In  the  Koniglich 


G 


Miocene  Diatoms 


Sachsische  Technische  Hochschule  of  Dresden,  where  the  writer 
enjoyed  the  privilege  of  a term  of  special  study  of  modern  Diatoms, 
the  method  used  was  to  boil  a drop  of  water,  containing  the  living 
Diatoms,  on  a slip  of  mica  until  all  organic  matter  was  volatilized 
and  then  to  attach  the  mica  slip  to  a regular  glass  slide. 

The  advantage  of  this  method  is  its  expediency  rather  than  its 
permanency  and.  with  the  living  material,  the  mica  mount  secures 
high  refraction,  but  the  fossil  material  does  not  clear  up  and  give 
as  good  results  with  this  style  of  mount.  The  aim  in  mounting 
the  new  diatomite  was  to  get  as  clear  and  permanent  mounts  as 
possible  with  the  smallest  expenditure  of  time,  so  the  material 
was  vigorously  boiled  with  hydrochloric  acid  for  some  time  to 
remove  impurities,  and  then  decanted  and  washed.  Then  a drop 
was  evaporated  on  a cover  glass,  and  mounted  with  xylol  balsam. 
In  this  way  very  satisfactory  slides  were  obtained. 

The  result  of  examination  of  these  mounts  reveals  a wealth  of 
new  forms,  among  which  fifteen  well  known  genera  and  fifty 
species  have  already  been  recognized  and  drawn. 

The  plan  is  to  supplement  this  preliminary  announcement  later 
with  fuller  notes  and  more  accurate  data,  with  figures  from  the 
camera-lucida  sketches,  which  the  writer  has  already  made,  and 
with  descriptions  of  i he  new  species  and  genera. 

LIST  OF  FORMS  FOUND  IN  THE  NEW  MIOCENE  DIATOMITE 

Achnanthes. 

1.  Achnanthes  minutissima.  2.  Achnanthes  trinodis. 

Amphora. 

3.  Amphora  pellucida.  4.  Amphora  proteus. 

Cocconeis. 

o.  Cocconeis  borealis.  6.  Cocconeis  sp.  (undt.).  7.  Cocconeis 
sp.  {undt.).  S.  Cocconeis  sp.  {undt.).  9.  Cocconeis  sp.  (undt.). 
Cocconema. 

10.  Cocconema  janischii.  11.  Cocconema  lanceolatum.  12.  Cocco- 
nema lineata. 

Cymhella. 

13.  Cymhella  afpnis.  14.  Cymhella  amphicephala.  15.  Cym- 
hella Crystula.  16.  Cymhella  ehrenhergii.  17.  Cymhella  gastroides. 
18.  Cymhella  turgidnla.  19.  Cymhella  sp.  {undt.). 


Nebhaska  Geological  Survey 


i 

Encyonema. 

20.  Encyonema  cae8))itosinn . 21.  Encyonema  tur(/i(Ium.  22.  En- 
cyonema  sp.  i undt.). 

Epithemia. 

23.  Epithemia  argus.  24.  E pithemia  granulata.  25.  E pithemia 
hyndmanii.  26.  Epithemia  turgida.  27.  Epithemia  zebra.  2S.  Epi- 
theynia  sp.  (undt.).  29.  Epithemia  sp.  (undt.).  30.  Epithemia  sp. 
(undt.).  31.  Epithemia  sp.  {undt.).  32.  Epithemia  sp.  {undt.). 
33.  Epithemia  sp.  {undt.).  34.  Epithemia  sp.  {undt.). 

Fragilaria. 

35.  Fragilaria  bidens.  36.  Fragilaria  capucina.  37.  Fragilaria 
construens.  38.  Fragilaria  harrisonii.  39.  Fragilaria  sp.  {undt.). 
40.  Fragilaria  sp.  {undt.). 

Gomphonema. 

41.  Gomphonema  acuminatum.  42.  Gomphonema  claratum. 
43.  Gomphonema  constiictum.  44.  Gomphonema  sp.  {undt.). 
45.  Gomphonema  sp.  {undt.).  46.  Gomphonema  s]>.  {undt.). 
Melosira. 

47.  Melosira  granulata.  48.  Melosira  sp.  {undt.). 

Navicula. 

49.  Navicula  divergens.  50.  Navicula  elliptica.  51.  Navicula 
formosa.  52.  Navicula  interru pta.  53.  Navicula  limosa.  54.  Na- 
vicula major.  55.  Navicula  nobilis.  56.  Navicula  rheinhardtii. 
57.  Navicula  subcapitata.  58.  Navicula  sp.  {undt.).  59.  Namcula 
sp.  {undt.).  60.  Navicula  sp.  {undt.).  61.  Navicula  sp.  {undt.). 
Nitschia. 

62.  Nitschia  communis.  63.  Nitschia  denticula. 

Stauroneis. 

64.  Stauroneis  smithii. 

Surirella. 

^ 65.  Surirella  splendida . 6().  Surirella  sj)ir(dis. 

Synedra. 

67.  Synedra  afjinis.  68.  Synedra  capitata.  69.  Synedra  crindal- 
lina.  70.  Synedra  chasci.  71.  Synedra  (/(dlionii.  72.  Synedra 
superba.  73.  Synedra  sp.  {undl.). 

Undt.  si^^nifies  species  which  ai‘(‘  j)i-(^suinal)I y lu'w. 


8 


Miocene  Diatoms 


ECONOMIC  ASPECT 

From  an  economic  standpoint  the  diatomaceoiis  deposits  of  this 
state  have,  so  far,  not  proved  to  be  of  great  importance,  possibly 
because  of  the  lack  of  exploitation.  A small  amount  is  put  up  in 
cans  by  local  dealers  and  sold  as  a polishing  power  for  which  pur- 
pose it  is  well  suited. 

The  living  Diatoms  play  an  important  part  in  the  purification 
of  water  owing  to  the  fact  that  diatomin,  a substance  very  anal- 
ogous to  the  chlorophyll  of  higher  plants,  has  the  j^i'operty  of 
decomposing  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air  by  the  aid  of  solar 
light,  and  assimilating  the  carbon,  and  at  the  same  time  rejecting 
the  oxygen.  The  scope  of  Diatoms  in  this  work  of  water  puri- 
fications is  almost  boundless  as  these  tiny  organisms  are  of  uni- 
versal distribution,  occurring  as  they  do  in  fresh  water,  salt  water, 
the  cold  water  of  the  arctics,  and  even  in  the  hot  waters  of  the 
Yellowstone  National  Park.  They  are  also  to  be  found  in  abun- 
dance in  moist  earth.  In  the  stagnant  pools  of  our  smaller  streams 
and  in  the  large  marshes  of  our  greater  streams,  as  the  Platte 
and  Missouri,  Diatoms  flourish  in  vast  numbers  and  serve  a useful 
purpose  in  the  purification  of  these  bodies  of  water.  Diatoma- 
ceous  earth  or  diatomite,  sometimes  improperly  known  as  in- 
fusorial earth,  has  been  of  undoubted  economic  importance, 
although  recent  inventions  and  discoveries  seem  to  have  displac- 
ed it  in  the  market  and  re.stricted  its  use. 

At  one  time  diatomite  was  used  extensively  as  a non-con- 
ductor; as  an  abrasive;  in  the  filtering  of  water;  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  dynamite. 

At  present  it  is  employed  chiefly  as  an  abrasive,  and  certain 
silver  polishes  on  the  market  are  said  to  be  composed  essentially 
of  these  siliceous  frustules. 


The  University  of  Nebraska 
April,  1910. 

Distributed  Mav  25,  1910. 


22 


NEBRASKA 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


ERWIN  HINCKLEY  BARBOUR,  State  Geologic 

VOLUME  3 

PART  13 


SECOND 

FINANCIAL  STATEMENT 


By  ERWIN  H.  BARBOUR 


SFA'OXI)  FINANCIAL  STATFMFNT. 


Fewin  Hinckley  Barboue. 


The  first  financial  statement  appeared  in  Volume  II, 
Part  8,  pages  364-  to  388.  In  the  above  mentioned  paper  will 
be  found  statements  respecting  the  scope  of  the  Nebraska 
Geological  Survey,  reports  published,  resources  of  the  state 
and  the  ])rogress  made  in  their  development,  finished  manu- 
scripts, invoice  of  furniture  and  apparatus  belonging  to 
the  State  Survey,  exchanges,  and  a financial  statement  con- 
cerning the  bienniums  1902  and  1903,  1904  and  1905,  1906 
and  1907,  to  February  15,  1907. 

The  present  report,  beginning  February  15,  1907,  will 
continue  the  financial  statement  for  the  succeeding  bien- 
niums, 1908  and  1909,  1910  to  February  15,  1911. 

Statements  respecting  our  natural  resources  and  indus- 
trial development  will  be  published  separately  in  Volume 
IV,  Part  2,  under  the  title  ‘^Development  of  Our  Natural 
Resources,  A Report  of  Progress.’^ 

The  present  geological  regime  dates  from  1891,  at 
which  time  there  were  only  private  funds  for  use  in  field 
work  and  for  the  publication  of  reports,  and  it  was  not  until 
1892  that  the  State  began  to  maintain  its  Geological  Sur- 
vey. The  affairs  of  the  Survey  are  conducted  on  the  policy 
of  too  rigid  economy  for  the  welfare  to  our  resources  and 
industries. 

No  salaries  are  paid  and  gratuitous  services  are  relied 
upon,  as  far  as  is  possible,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
funds  of  the  State  Survey  have  as  yet  never  exceeded  $1,250 
a year,  an  unusual  amount  of  field  work  has  been  done  and 
extensive  and  representative  collections  brought  together, 
three  volumes  printed,  the  fourth  partly  done,  the  fifth, 
sixth  and  seventh  ready  for  the  printer  and  a few  pieces 
of  office  furniture  and  apparatus  procured.  All  property 
belonging  to  the  State  Survey  is  properly  marked,  recorded 
and  invoiced,  and  stored  in  fireproof  quarters  in  the  State 
Museum. 


A WORM)  OF  EXPLANATION. 

Respecting  the  typography  and  appearance  of  certain 
reports,  a word  should  be  said  in  explanation.  The  director 
of  the  State  Survey  specifies  the  kind  and  quality  of  paper, 
type,  etc.,  while  the  State  Printing  Board  advertises  and 
lets  all  contracts  for  printing,  which,  according  to  law,  must 
go  to  the  lowest  bidder.  Consequently  certain  manuscripts 
fall  into  unfortunate  hands  and  inferior  work  is  the  result. 
Whoever  serves  in  an  editorial  capacity  is  the  one  censured 
for  these  errors,  not  the  printer.  And,  while  we  would  not 
indulge  in  apologies,  we  feel  disposed  to  mention  certain 
extenuating  circumstances. 

While  it  seems  to  be  the  only  course  to  pursue,  it  is 
none  the  less  unfortunate  that  state  reports  should  go  to  the 
lowest  bidder,  for  the  best  is  none  too  good  for  the  people. 
The  lowest  bidder  is  not  infrequently  a young  and  relatively 
inexperienced  village  printer  with  little  knowledge  of  the 
fitness  of  things  in  book-making.  Being  over-sanguine  he 
is  tempted  oftentimes  to  submit  bids  too  low  for  possible 
profit,  the  inevitable  result  being  hurried  and  inferior 
workmanship.  Fired  by  hope  of  gains  and  reckoning  badly 
on  the  costs,  some  exceed  the  limit  of  credit  and  fail,  and 
then  peddle  their  contracts  to  others.  This  has  happened 
twice  in  the  past  nine  years.  In  one  case  a printer  on  the 
verge  of  bankruptcy  held  one  of  our  reports  of  150  pages 
on  the  press,  blocking  subsequent  reports  for  a year  or  more, 
by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  this  state  job  gave  him  standing 
with  his  creditors.  After  foreclosure  the  contract  was 
peddled  to  three  others  in  succession  before  it  was  finally 
done. 

However  deeply  we  may  deplore  such  experiences  they 
seem  at  times  inevitable.  Work  done  under  such  circum- 
stances cannot  come  up  to  standard,  and  must  to  a greater 
or  less  degree  disa])pointing  to  the  reader,  the  di- 

rector, and  especially  so  to  the  authoi*,  who  devoted  two  or 
three  years  gratuitously  to  its  pre])aration,  and  who  must 
feel  that  the  excellence  of  his  work  is  misrepresentc‘d  by  in- 
ferior press  work. 


While  there  is  a penalty  danse  covering  snch  wanton 
delay,  it  is  so  worded  as  to  be  easily  evaded  and  thus  rend- 
ered inoperative.  In  justice  to  the  general  printing  profes- 
sion these  cases  may  be  counted  exceptions,  for  as  a rule 
onr  printers  are  well  equipped  and  their  intentions  good, 
making  all  relations  with  them  in  an  editorial  capacity 
pleasant  and  profitable. 


TIIK  LIBKAKY  OF  TIIF  XFBHASKA  GEOLOBICAL 

suino^v. 

The  library  of  the  Nebraska  Geological  Survey,  which 
now  includes  some  2,500  books,  miscellaneons  publications 
and  pamphlets,  is  on  the  exchange  list  of  the  various  scien- 
tific societies,  the  Geological  Surveys  of  the  several  states, 
the  several  departments  of  the  government,  learned  so- 
cieties and  private  authors.  Though  properly  stamped  and 
recorded  to  the  credit  of  the  Nebraska  Geological  Survey 
and  provisionally  cataloged,  formal  cataloging  cannot  be 
undertaken  until  later.  Ultimately  the  library  of  the  Ne- 
braska Geological  Survey,  like  that  of  older  states,  will  be- 
come an  asset  of  importance. 


FTXAN(  1 AT.  STATEMENT. 

1907. 

Feb,  19  Cornell  Engraving  Co $ 69.98 

Feb.  19  Erwin  H.  Barbour  (expenses)  2.66 

Mar.  6 Edith  Webster  27.90 

Apr.  4 Western  Publishing  Co 35.76 

May  2 Edith  Webster  32.70 

June  19  E.  H.  Barbour  (expenses)  2.40 

June  19  Edith  Webster  28.20 

June  19  Bertha  Melick  6.13 

June  19  Bertha  Melick  34.20 

June  19  Edith  Webster  47.40 

June  19  W.  O.  Forbes  7.00 

June  19  Cornell  Engraving  Co.  38.98 

July  6 Lincoln  Photo  Supply  Co 10.84 

July  6 Bertha  Melick  37.80 

July  6 Harry  Porter  1.95 

July  6 Edith  Webster  55.50 

Sept.  21  Cornell  Engraving  Co 108.99 

Sept.  21  Edith  Webster  37.20 

Sept.  22  Eugene  Gill  26.82 

Sept.  27  Bertha  Melick  26.10 

Oct.  11  Bertha  Melick  ■ 13.20 

Oct.  11  Edith  Webster 24.30 

Oct.  11  R.  V.  Pepperburg  35.61 

Oct.  22  Ed.  Davis  79.97 

Oct.  2 5 G.  E.  Condra 2 5.86 

Nov.  11  Edith  L.  Webster  18.45 

Nov.  12  Western  Publishing  Co 108.75 

Nov.  20  M.  R.  Barbour  11.50 

Dec.  18  Edith  Webster  22.80 

Dec.  18  Harry  Porter  27.50 

Dec.  18  R.  V.  Pepperburg 5.94 

Dec.  18  American  Express  Co 4.30 

1998. 

Jan.  13  Edith  L.  Webster  $ 17.10 

Jan.  24  R.  Hindmarsh  8.00 

Jan.  24  Bertha  Melick  19.50 

Jan.  31  Cornell  Engraving  Co 42.60 

Feb.  25  Edith  Webster  27.60 

Feb.  28  Asnel  L.  Wilson 11.35 

Mar.  7 American  Express  Co .69 

Mar.  23  U.  G.  Cornell 80.28 

Apr.  18  American  Exj)ress  Co 1.74 

Apr.  18  Edith  Webster 22.20 

Apr.  30  R.  V.  Pepperburg  15.40 

Apr.  30  Edwin  G.  Davis 19.45 


May  19  Edith  Webster  30.60 

June  2 Rollin  Joseph  4.70 

June  16  Cornell  Engraving  Co 87.24 

June  24  Alden  Bumstead  21.40 

June  24  Edwin  G.  Davis 3.52 

July  2 E.  H.  Barbour  21.31 

July  2 Maud  Melick  11.95 

July  2 E.  F.  Schramm  13.50 

July  2 Edith  Webster  47.70 

July  15  American  Express  Co ....  1.13 

July  18  Bertha  Melick  49.50 

July  29  Edith  Webster  53.10 

Aug.  6 Bertha  L.  Melick  32.40 

Aug.  14  Edith  Webster  43.20 

Aug.  17  Lincoln  Photo  Supply  Co 3.15 

Sept.  8 G.  E.  Condra  6.45 

Sept.  19  Bertha  Melick  22.95 

Sept.  19  Edith  Webster  52.80 

Oct.  19  C.  H.  Eaton 90.00 

Get.  21  Edith  Webster  19.50 

Xov.  20  Edith  Webster  18.30 

Xov.  21  Cornell  Engraving  Co 4 6.97 

1909. 

Feb.  18  Edith  Webster  $ 8.11 

Mar.  6 Cornell  Engraving  Co 95.80 

Mar.  27  York  Blank  Book  Co 312.90 

Apr.  9 York  Blank  Book  Co 13.42 

Apr.  24  American  Express  Co 2.95 

Apr.  24  Lincoln  Transfer  Co 4.00 

May  10  Erwin  H.  Barbour  (expenses)  24.34 

May  12  Alden  Bumstead  9.00 

May  29  U.  G.  Cornell  43.35 

June  14  Maud  Melick  . . . 12.30 

June  14  Bertha  Melick  40.50 

June  25  Bertha  Melick  51.15 

June  25  York  Blank  Book  Co 53.36 

June  25  York  Blank  Book  Co 41.72 

July  17  Cornell  Engraving  Co $ 61.16 

July  19  Edna  Mantor  30.30 

July  19  E.  H.  Barbour  (expenses)  3.09 

Aug.  3 Edith  L.  Webster 53.70 

Aug.  14  Edith  Webster  3.08 

Aug.  26  R.  V.  Pepperburg  29.12 

Dec.  14  F.  J.  Priddet  9.25 

1910. 

Jan.  13  Harry  Porter  $ 2.50 

Jan.  19  Cornell  Engraving  Co 4.19 


Jan.  21  Bertha  Thornburg  17.00 

Mar.  10  Bertha  Thornburg 19.25 

Mar.  16  Edwin  G.  Davis 7.82 

Apr.  13  Cornell  Engraving  & Photo  Co.  12.87 

Apr.  29  Lincoln  Photo  Supply  Co 8.15 

Apr.  29  Hardy  Furniture  Co.  Invoice  No.  15-4-10 37.75 

Apr.  29  Koska  Glass  & Paint  Co 9.91 

May  14  Bertha  Thornburg  30.25 

June  7 Etta  Carpenter  4.25 

June  23  C.  N.  & W.  Ry.  Co 21.02 

July  6 C.  N.  & W.  Ry.  Co 8.63 

July  14  York  Blank  Book  Co 32.40 

July  16  Bertha  Thornburg  64.50 

July  16  Cornell  Engraving  Co 41.63 

July  16  E.  F.  Schramm  130.00 

July  16  E.  F.  Schramm  32.48 

July  21  E.  H.  Barbour  (field  expenses)  68.85 

July  22  Cornell  Engraving  Co 69.55 

Aug.  9 George  W.  Bonnell,  Agent  3.90 

Aug.  12  York  Blank  Book  Co 79.45 

Aug.  23  Erwin  H.  Barbour  (field  expenses)  15.64 

Aug.  25  Edith  Webster  88.55 

Sept.  1 Miller  & Paine  8.10 

Sept.  1.  Nebraska  Paper  & Bag  Co 7.40 

Sept.  19  C.  H.  Eaton  180.62 

Sept.  19  Robert  Graham  244.70 

Sept.  20  Ed  Davis 339.73 

Sept.  29  E.  H.  Barbour  (team  hire)  199.98 

Oct.  22  Cornell  Engraving  Co 12.23 

Nov.  1 York  Blank  Book  Co 39.73 

Dec.  15  Bertha  Thornburg 70.50 

Jan.  9 Bertha  Melick  7.10 

Jan.  13  Harry  Porter  1.25 

Feb.  2 Bertha  Thornburg 33.00 


A 

Acknowledgment 15 

Aceratherium 246 

Agate 209,  215,  220,  245,  254,  258 

Agate  Spring  Quarry 245,  258,  261 

Alluvium 58,  278 

Alluvial  formation 86 

American  Museum  of  Natural  History  262 

Analysis,  coal  279 

Analysis,  Dakota  County  lignite 297 

Analysis,  sand 112 

Analysis,  glass 194 

Ancylopoda 213 

Andesite 24 

Arapahoe 146,  299 

Area,  Approximate  of  American  Coal 301 

Arikaree 46,  49,  278 

Artificial  stone  161 

Artificial  stone,  plants  outlined 164 

Ashland 143,  277 

Ashland  dredge 99 

Asphalt 171 

Asterophyllites  equisetiformis 328 

Atchison  Shales 328 

Atkinson 142 

Atwood,  S.  H 122,  236 

Atwood  Company’s  Quarry,  output 237 

Auriferous  sand  20 

15 

Ballast  83 

Bank  sand  along  Platte 115 

Barbour,  Erwin  H 15,  18,  207,  217,  231,  251,  255,  282 

” Eleanor 331 

Bard  well.  May 15 

Basalt 24 

Bates,  Ross 15 

Beatrice 131,  145 

Beatty,  Mr.  280 


Beaver  city 146 

Bedding  sand  190 

Beebe,  J.  W 321 

Beebxe,  John  H 90 

Bengtson,  Mr.  X.  A 314 

Benton  Formations  46 

Berks 116 

Big  Blue  District  129 

Bishop,  E.  C r 83 

Black  sands 20 

Black,  W.  W 234 

Blacksmith,  Kansas 292 

Bloomington  140 

Blue  Springs  145,  233 

Borst,  A.  M 307 

Bramm 128 

Brickton 134,  145 

Broken  Bow 85 

Brownville,  section  at 317 

Brule  46,  278 

B.  & M.  R.  R 284 

Burt  County 296,  298 

Butler,  B.  S 262 

C 

Calamariae 327 

Calcite  23 

Cambridge 146 

Canidae  262 

Canis  latrans 270 

Carboniferous  278 

Carboniferous  Flora  277 

Carboniferous  Flora,  Preliminary  Notes  on  313-330 

Carboniferous  rocks 40 

Carlile 46,  278 

Carnegie  Hill  209 

Carnegie  Museum  209 

Carnivora,  New,  from  Lower  Miocene  of  Western  Nebraska ..  259-274 

Cass  County 278,  296 

Cass  County,  Coal  of 279 

Cedar  Bluffs  115 

Cedar  County  lignite  297 

Cedar  Creek  144 

Cedar  Creek  production  108 

Cement  Block  machines 164 

Central  City  91 

Ceresco 117 

Chadron 46,  141,  278 


Chalicotherium 


213 


Chatburn,  George  R 

Chert  

Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota  R.  R 

Chemistry  department.  University  of  Nebraska 

Clark,  D.  Y 

Classification  of  sands  

Clay 

Coal,  analysis  

” distribution  in  U.  S 

” excitements  

” in  Nebraska 

” kinds  of  

” law  relating  to  bounty  for  

” Map  of  U.  S 

” prospecting 

” stages  in 

” values 

Cobbles  and  bowlders 

Cody 

Coenopus  

Columbus 

Concrete 

Concrete,  tests  of  strength  of  

” tension  tests  of  

” compression  tests  of  

” cross  breaking  tests  of 

” comparative  fitness  

” culverts  

” curing 

" dams  


” ditches 

” facing  

*'  houses 

” mixing 

” other  uses  

” piers  

” sewers 

” subways 

” specifications 

” tanks  

walls 

” water  pipes 

Condra,  Mrs.  G.  E 

Cook,  Mr.  .James  

” Harold  .J 215, 

Cope,  E.  D 

Coral  sand 


243, 

213, 


. 15,  223,  225 

46 

78 

.279,  290,  292 

91 

19 

24,  78 

279 

301 

280 

277 

302 

305 

304 

282,  300 

303 

294 

56 

142 

245,  246 

91,  143 

148 

225 

227 

28S 

228 

166 

155 

165 

157 

158 

165 

160 

15  3 

167 

157 

160 

160 

16  8 

158 

160 

158 

15 

209,  254,  258 
245,  259,  261 
262,  264,  271 
29 


Cornell  Engraving  Company 15 

Cretaceous 46,  277,  278 

Cretaceous  formation 299 

Crete  131,  145 

Crete,  lignite  seam  at  297 

Crum,  C.  W 84 

Cullom 117,  144 

” Gravel  pit 127 

Culverts,  concrete  147,  155 


D 


Dakota  46,  57,  278 

Dakota  clay 120 

Dakota  County  296,  298 

” ” lignite  297 

Dakota  Formation 41,  79,  86,  117,  138,  296 

Dakota  Formation,  outcrop  of 4 2 

Dams,  concrete 147,  157 

Daphoenodon  261 

” periculosus 268 

” supurbus 268 

Darton 15,  46 

Davis,  Edwin  G 254 

Davis,  G.  H.,  Quarry  of 234,  235 

” G.  H.  Quarry  capacity  236 

Day,  John 261 

Denton  116 

DeWitt  145 

Diatoms,  Newly  Discovered  bed 331 

Diceratheres  246,  258 

Diceratherium  209,  246,  254 

Diceratherium  arikarense,  two  restorations  of 215 

Dinocyon 254 

Dinohyus 254 

Dixon  County  298 

Dixon  County  lignite 297 

Dodge  County  lignite 297 

Dodge  County 296,  298 

Douglas  County 278,  296 

Dredging  boat 64 

Dredging,  clam  65 

Drift 278 

Dundy  County 139 

Dune  sands 59,  82,  278 


E 


Edentates 
Elk  Creek 


213 

89,  144 


Elkhorn  District  83 

Endicott 146 

Engine  sand 186 

Eocene  213 

Equisetites  occidentalis  328 

Equisetites  Schp 328 

Equus  beds  278 

Eyerman 262,  266 

F 

Fairbury 136,  145,  146 

Falls  City  145 

Falls  City,  coal  excitement 282 

Feldspar 17,  22,  51 

Field  study  13 

Fisher,  C.  A 15,  118 

Flint 46 

Flint  Ballast  Industry 233 

Formations,  in  Nebraska 278 

Foss,  S.  R 133 

Franklin 146 

Franklin  County 140 

Fremont 91,  92,  94,  143 

Fremont  dredges 91 

Friezes  Mill 280 

Furnas  County  140 

Fulk,  J.  R 136 

G 

Gage  County  296 

Gage  County,  flint  ballast  industry  of 233 

Geological  Map  of  Nebraska  281 

Gering  46,  49,  278 

Gulley 261 

Glacial  boulders 79 

” deposits 52 

” formation  86 

Glacio-fluvial  sand  plain 54 

Glacial  sand  and  gravel 83 

Glass,  analysis  of 194 

” economic  aspects  198 

” factories 198 

” industry 192 

Gneiss 25 

Gould,  C.  N 118 


Grand  Island 91 

Graneros 46,  278 

Graneros  Formation 298 

Granite  16,  24,  57 

Grant,  City  Engineer,  Lincoln  151 

Gravel 46,  48,  49,  51,  52,  53,  54,  55,  56,  58,  60,  64,  74,  117,  IIS 

Gravel  Pit  122 

” ” Beatrice 131 

” ” Bramm 128 

” ” Brickton  134 

” ” Crete  131 

” ” Cullom 127 

” ” Fairbury  136 

” ” Hebron 135 

” ” Milford  132 

” ” Sutton 132 

” ” Turkey  Creek 133 

” ” Ulysses  132 

” Wagner 128 

” ” Wymore 131 

” ” York  132 

Gravel  and  Pebble  Rock  44 

Gravel  shipment  126 

Greenhorn 46,  57,  278 

Greenstone 57 

Gregory,  G.  A 132 

H 

Haigler  146 

Halsey  85,  142 

Harrison  beds  213 

Harrison,  lower  261 

Hartington  84,  85 

Hayden 278 

Hayden  and  Meek  280 

Hector,  Fred  307 

Hebron  135,  145 

Homer,  lignite  seam  at  297 

Honey  Creek  Coal  Mine  282,  283 

” ” ” ” measurements  285 

” ” ” ” geological  selection  288 

” ” ” ” method  of  working  289 

” ” ” ” physical  and  chemical  properties 289 

” ” ” ” ground  plan  290 

” ” ” ” output  295 

Honey  Creek  Hill,  topography  of 286 

Honey  Creek  Hill,  geological  section 288 

Hoover,  N.  


Hornlende  23 

Hubbel  29  8 

Humboldt,  coal  excitement  282 

Hypotemnodon  262 

I 

Identification  of  Carboniferous  Flora 323 

Introduction  13 

Iron  oxides  23 

Irrigation  ditches  147,  158 

J 


Jackson,  lignite  seam  at  297 

James,  Mr.  C.  B.  313 

Jam.estown,  lignite  seam  at  297 

Jefferson  County  296,298 

Jefferson  County  lignite  297 

Jensen,  J.  C 140 

Johnson  County 277,  280 

K 

Kansan  Till 54,56 

Kearney  Hydraulic  Stone  Co 90 

Kearney  and  vicinity  89,  143 

Kesterson  146 


L 

Laboratory  study  of  sand 

Lancaster  

Lancaster  County  

Laramie  

Laramie  Formation  

Law,  relating  to  bounty  for  coal  . . 
Lesquereux’s  Coal  Flora  Atlas  .... 
Lepidostrobus  and  Lepidophyllum 

Lexington  

Limestones 

Lincoln  

Little  Blue  District 

Loess 

Logan  Valley  

Long  Pine  

Loup  District  

Loup  Fork  

Louisville 

Louisville  dredges  

Lyman  dredge 

Lyman,  Mr 


15 

116 

278,  296,  298 

46,  278 

299 

300 

319 

328 

143 


144 

134 

.58,  278 

84 

82 

85 

46 

143,  144 
. . . .105 
. .94,  97 
99 


M 

Madison 

Marsh,  F.  A 9]^ 

-’'lartel  

Martinsburg  

Masonry  mortar  

Materials,  kinds  tested  227,  228 

Matthew,  W.  D 261 

Mayne,  Frank  K 234 

McCook 140^  299 

Meadow  443 

Meadow  dredges  99 

Meadow  Grove 84 

Measurements  of  Honey  Creek  Mine 285 

Measurements  of  Type  specimens  Temnocyon  271,  272 

Meek  and  Hayden 280 

Mercer,  A.  J 90 

Merna 142 

Merriam,  J.  C 262,  264,  268 

Mesocyon  262 

Mesocyon  coryphaeus  264 

Metacoenopus  245,  246 

Mica 16,  22 

^lica  and  hornblende  schists  5 7 

Middle  Creek  117 

Middle  Loup  85 

Milford 117,  132  145 

Milford,  lignite  seams  at 297 

Miller,  John  H 215 

Miocene  43,  213 

” lower  245 

” hills  209 

Missouri  River  277 

Molding  sand  190 

Monolithic  walls  and  houses 14  7,  160 

Montgomery,  F.  W 89 

Moropus  210 

” affinities  of 213 

” cooki 219,  221,  222 

” European  type  220 

” Marsh’s  215 

” skeletal  parts  219 

” skull  of  209 

Morrill  Collection  of  Photographs 

234,  235,  237,  238,  239  241,  287,  291,  293 

Morrill  Geological  Collections  210 

Morrill  Geological  Expedition  209,  215,  258 


Morrill,  Hon.  Charles  H 219,  331 

Morrill  Quarry  220 

Morrison  278 

Morrison  Formation 41 

Morse  Bluff 115 

Morse,  Professor  in  U.  N 15 

Mortar  sands 140 

Mortar,  mixing  of  151 

Murphy,  Hugh  108 

Mustelidae 270 

N 

Nebraska,  at  edge  of  Carboniferous  basin  300 

Nebraska  City  142,  313 

” ” Carboniferous  plants  at  320 

” ” Coal  excitement  282 

” ” List  of  fossils  329 

” ” Section  at  316 

Nebraska  Geological  Survey  258 

Nebraska  Geological  Survey,  Volume  II  258 

Nebraska  State  Museum  219 

Neligh  84 

Nemaha  County  277 

Nemaha  County,  Coal  of 279 

Nemaha  District 127 

Neuropeteris  Loshii  326 

” localities  of  325 

” ovata 327 

” scheuchzeri 326 

Niobrara  46,  76,  209,  278 

” Port  215 

” District 82 

Norfolk 84 

North  Platte  86 

Northwestern  R.  R 82 

Nothocyon  266,  270 

” geismarianus  268 

” annectens  268 

” measurements  of 272 

O 

O’Connell  James  139 

Odontopteris  Brgt 327 

Ogallala 4 6,  51,  5!) 

Ogallala,  Pliocene 27S 

Oligocene  46,  213,  246 

Oligobunis  lepidus  261,  270 


Oligobunis,  measurements  of 271,  272 

Omaha 142,  277 

Omaha  Gravel  Company 122 

Ord 14  2 

Osborne  213 

Otoe  County  277 

Otoe  County,  Coal  of 279 

Ottawa  sand  29 

Oxford  146 

P 

Palmyra 142 

Parahippus  245 

Parmalee,  A.  H 109 

Part  1,  Sand  and  Gravel  Resources  and  Industries  of  Nebraska.  .1-206 

Part  2,  The  Skull  of  Moropus  207-216 

Part  3,  Skeletal  Parts  of  Moropus  217-222 

Part  4,  Tests  of  Strength  of  Concrete 223-230 

Part'  5,  The  Flint  Ballast  Industry  of  Gage  County 231-242 

Part  6,  A New  Genus  of  Rhinoceros  from  Sioux  County 243-250 

Part  7,  A Slab  from  the  Bone  Beds  of  Sioux  County 251-254 

Part  8,  Restoration  of  Diceratherium  Arikarense.  A New 

Form  of  Panel  Mount 255-258 

Part  9,  Some  New  Carnivora  from  the  Lower  Miocene  Beds 

of  Western  Nebraska  259-274 

Part  10,  Coal  in  Nebraska  275-310 

Part  11,  Preliminary  Notes  on  the  Carboniferous  Flora  of 

Nebraska  311-330 

Part  12,  Preliminary  Notice  of  Newly  Discovered  Bed  of 

Miocene  Diatoms 331-338 

Pavements,  cement  169 

Pawnee  City  144 

Pawmee  County  277,  280 

Pawnee  County  Productions  128 

Peanut  rock  46 

Pennsylvania  Formation  277 

Pennsylvanian  sand  41 

Pepperberg,  Roy  V. 275,  277,  311,  313 

Perisodactyle 213 

Perrin,  Dale  C 15 

Peru  142,  277,  320 

” Coal  excitement 282 

” coal.  Chemical  analysis 290 

” topography  of  Honey  Creek  Hill 286 

Peterson,  O.  A 261,  268 

Photographs  from  Hon.  Charles  H.  Morrill’s  collection 


211,  212,  214,  234,  235,  237,  238,  239,  241,  287,  291,  293;  plate 
2,  part  2,  plate  1 to  9,  part  3,  plate  1,  part  7,  plate  1,  part  8 


Pierce  46 

Pierre 278 

Pierre  Shale  Formation . .298 

Piers,  concrete  147,  157 

Pine  Ridge  299 

Plaster 14  7,  152 

Platte  River 18,  277 

Platte  District 86 

Plattsmouth 80,  277 

Plattsmouth,  Coal  excitement  282 

Platte  sand,  commercial  movement 113 

Pliocene 213 

Powell,  lignite  seam  at 297 

Preliminary  Notes  on  the  Carboniferous  Flora  of  Nebraska.  . .313-330 
Preliminary  Notice  of  a Newly  Discovered  Bed  of  Miocene 

diatoms 313-338 

Pteriodphyta  322 

Q 

Quaternary  278 

R 

Railroad  ballast  175 

Railroads  and  markets  113 

Red  Cloud 146 

Redmond,  W . D 306 

Red  Willow  County 139 

Reed,  M.  H 234 

Republican  District  138 

Residual  gravel  and  sand 88 

Rhinoceros  Diceratherium  209 

” New  genus  of  245 

” New  Fossil  258 

Rhinocerotidae  246 

Rhyolites 2 4 

Richards,  Professor  in  U.  N 15 

Richardson  County 277 

Richardson  County,  Coal  of  279 

Richardson  County  sand  production 128 

Roofing  gravel  172 

Rosebud,  Upper  beds 261 

Rulo,  Coal  excitement  282 

8 

Salem 

Salt  Creek 4 2 

Salt  Creek  Valley 


Samples,  sand 14 

Sand  13,  17,  46,  78,  79,  80,  89,  90,  112 

” Arikaree  49 

” as  moisture  pad 168 

” chemical  analysis 80 

” classification  19 

” comparison 58 

” composition  21,  24,  36 

” delivery 75 

” deposits  82,  84,  86,  88 

” districts  76 

” dredging 64,  65 

” dune  sand  59 

” exposures  76 

” field  study  13 

” Gering 49 

” glacial  52 

“ glacio-fluvial 54,  5 5,  56 

” grading  30 

” in  Dakota  Formation  42 

” laboratory  study  15 

” loading  and  hauling  61 

” markets 113 

” mining  60,  65 

” minor  uses 200 

” Ogallala 4 9 

” origin Id 

” physical  and  chemical  properties 25 

” Pliocene  51 

” Platte  113 

” production  and  trade  70,  108,  115,  116 

” pumping 64,  104 

” quality  80 

” residual 88 

” samples 14 

” shipment 72,  106 

” sources  60 

” specialized  trade 6 9 

” specific  gravity 33 

” supply  and  demand 72 

” tertiary  51 

” testing  26,  36 

” till  plain 52 

” total  value  72 

” tunneling 62 

” uses 150,  173,  190 

” washing  and  screening 74 


” weight 33 

Sand-bearing  formations 38 

” ” ” outlined 40 

Sand  dredge,  Ashland  99 

” ” Fremont  94 

” ” Louisville  105 

” ” Lyman 94,97 

” ” Meadow  99 

” ” Valley  97 

” ” Woodsworth 97,  105 

Sand-lime  bricks, 178 

” ” ” manufacture  ..  180 

” ” ” nature  of  182 

” ” ” constitution  of 182 

” ” ” plants 184,  186 

” ” ” table  of  productions  185 

Sand  Pit 78,  80,  83,  84,  85,  86,  90,  91,  92,  94 

Sand  pits,  Berks  116 

” ” Cedar  Bluffs 115 

” ” Ceresco  117 

” ” Cullom  117 

” ” Davey  117 

” ” Denton  116 

” ” Lancaster  116 

” ” Martel  116 

” ” Middle  Creek  117 

” ” Morse  Bluff  115 

” ” Pleasant  Dale  117 

” ” Prairie  Home 117 

” ” Wahoo 115 

Sandstone  17,  25 

Sand  supply,  Ansley  86 

” ” Broken  Bow  86 

” ” Calloway  86 

” ” Columbus  86 

” ” Fremont  86 

” ” Gates,  R.  0 86 

” ” Mason  City 86 

” ” Oakdale 86 

” ” Sargent 86 

Sarpy  County 278,  296 

Saunders  County  296,  298 

Schist 25 

Schuyler 91 

Scotts  Bluff 143 

Screening  and  washing 74 

Section,  geological  279 


” at  Nebraska  City 316 

” at  Brownville 317 

” at  Rulo ' 318 

” gravel  pit  127 

Seward  County  ^ 298 

Sewers,  concrete  : 147,  160 

Shipment,  sand * 74 

Short,  Ed  M 140 

Sidewalks,  cement  168 

Sidney  and  Chappel  88 

Sioux  County 213,  220,  258 

Sioux  Quartzite  . . . 57 

South  Bend  143 

South  Dakota,  State  Geologist  of 297 

South  Fork,  Coal  excitenrent 282 

South  Platte  - 89 

Standard  sands 29 

State  Geological  Survey 13 

State  Museum 254 

Steam  shovel  65 

Stewart,  W.  M.  .* 237 

Stout,  Professor  in  U.  N 15 

Street  and  road  making.  Subway  and  tunnels . .147,  160 

Superior 298 

Sutton  132,  145 

Syenites 24,  57 

Syndyoceras ...245 

T 

Table  Rock  141 

Tanks,  concrete 147,  158 

Tecumseh 128,  144,  280 

Tecumseh,  coal  excitement 282 

Tekamah 78,  142 

Temnocyon,  altigenis 263,  264,  266 

” ferox. 266,  271 

percussor  266 

” Venator 262,  263,  265 

Tertiary 46,  51,  58,  74,  76,  278 

Tertiary  formations  83,  86 

Thayer  County  298 

Thedford  85 

Thomas,  Dr,  A.  C 90 

Thurston  County  296,  298 

Till  plain  sands  5 2 

Titanotherium  210 

Trap  Rock  57 


Todd,  Professor  J.  E . 

397 

Trenton  

146 

Triassic  and  Jurassic  rocks  

11 

Tunneling  sand 

62 

Turner’s  Branch  

Turkey  Creek  *. . . 

133 

U 

Ulrich,  E.  H 

Ulysses • 

132 

Ungulate 

. . .213,  220 

Unguiculates  

213 

Union  Pacific  Quarry 

. . . 239,  240 

Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company  

239 

University  Hill  

. . .209,  221 

University  of  Nebraska  

V 

Valentine  

83,  142 

Valley  

143 

Valley  Dredge 

9 7 

Valparaiso,  lignite  seam  at  

. . .**.  . . 

297 

Value  of  total  sand  production . . 

.72 

"van  Court  gravel  pit  

119 

Voifis  

: . .34 

Volcanic  ash  

20 

AV 

Wade,  Wm 

122 

Wagner  

128 

Wahoo 

. . . 115,  144 

Washington  County  

. . .278,  296 

Water  pipes,  concrete  

. . .147,  158 

Weeping  Water  

White,  Dr.  David  

. .-  .319,  330 

White,  Samuel  

136 

Whitmore,  Hon.  C.  W 

97 

Wilber  

Wisner  

Woodlake .’ 

Woods,  W.  W 

Woodworth  dredge  

97,  105 

” gravel  pit  

Wymore 

” limestone  ledges  of  

” quarry  

Y 


York 


132,  145 


library 

university  of  lUJtWR 


>« 


